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PRODUCTIVE 
ORCHARDING 

BY 



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" The first farmer was the first man, and all historic 
nobility rests on possession and use of land." 

— Emerson. 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM MANUALS 

EDITED BY 
KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE 
GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 



PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING 

MODERN METHODS OF GROWING 
AND MARKETING FRUIT 



By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. 

PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM MANUALS 

Edited by K. C. DAVIS. Ph.D. 



SECOND EDITION REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY 

By GEORGE E. DAY, B.S.A. 

PROF. OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CANADA. 

q6 illustrations. xiii-\-j6j pages. $1-75 net. 

SECOND EDITION REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY 
By harry R. lewis, B.S. 

poultry husbandryman. new jersey agricultural 

EXPERIMENT STATION. 

J JO illustrations. xxi-\- ^j6 pages. $2.00 net. 

SECOND EDITION REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY 
By carl W. gay, B.S.A. 

PROF. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, CHAIRMAN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SECTION, 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 

176 illustrations. xvi +331 pages. $i-75 net. 

PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING 

By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. 

PROF. OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 

157 illustrations. xiv +314 pages. $1-75 net. 

PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING 

By JOHN W. LLOYD, M.S.A. 

PROF. OF OLERICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. 

IQ4 illustrations. xiii ■\- 339 pages. $1-75 net. 

SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED 

PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

By F. W. WOLL, Ph.D. 

PROF. OF ANIMAL NUTRITION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 

106 illustrations. xii -\- 375 pages. $1. 75 net. 

SECOND EDITION 

COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS 
By R. a. CRAIG, D.V.M. 

PROF. VETERINARY SCIENCE, PURDUE UNIVERSITY. 

124 illustrations. xii-\- 334 pages. $1.75 net. 

PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS 
By E. G. M0NTG0A4ERY, M.A. 

PROF. OF FARM CROPS, CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 

204 illustrations. xix-\- 501 pages. $1-75 net. 

PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING 
By frank C. P^LLETT 

STATE APIARIST OF tOWA. 

135 illustrations. xiv -\- 302 pages. $1.75 net. 

PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING 

By R. M. WASHBURN 

PROF. OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 

132 illustrations. xii + 393 pages. $1-75 'net. 




o 

W o 



LiPPiNCOTT's Farm Manuals 

EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

PRODUCTIVE 
ORCHARDING 

MODERN METHODS OF GROWING 
AND MARKETING FRUIT 



BY 

FRED C. SEARS, M.S. 

(Kansas State Agricultural College) 
professor of pomology, massachusetts agricultural college 



157 ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT 



"If vain our toil. 
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil." 

Pope — Essay on Man 



SECOND EDITION, REVISED 




PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



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COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 
COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 

PUBLISHED JUNE 2, 1914 
REPRINTED OCTOBER 31, 1914 

REPRINTED MARCH 29, 1915 
REPRINTED JANUARY 15, 1916 
REPRINTED OCTOBER 5, 1917 



/ 



OCT 27 1917 



Electrotyped and printed by J. B. Lippincott Company 
The Washinoton Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



^CU47CT87 

~7v^ f 



To 

ROBERT W. STARR 

POMOLOGIST, ADVISER AND FRIEND, 
THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED BY 

THE AUTHOR 



PREFACE 

Probably every teacher who studies along any one line for a 
series of years becomes convinced that he has learned things that 
would be of value to men in this line of work. 

The writer offers this excuse for writing the present book, and 
perhaps the further justification might be added that for -a 
number of years he has had charge of a relatively large orchard 
where he believes that he has sifted out his theories and discarded 
those that " won't work." He hopes that this belief will be 
shared by any who may attempt to follow his directions, and 
that the book may prove a real help in solving some of the 
problems which every orchard owner, whether experienced or in- 
experienced, is certain to encounter. 

The writer also ventures to hope that the book may be helpful 
to instructors as a text for class use. He has attempted to cut 
out the non-essentials and to present the essentials in a. reason- 
ably brief manner and yet with sufficient detail to be followed 
easily when one attempts to put them into practice. 

Fred C. Sears 
Massachusetts Agricultural College, 
Amherst, January 1, 1914. 

Editor's Note. 

This book is suited to the needs of College and Short Course Classes. 
Its practical nature as well as its philosophical treatment makes it a book to 
be desired by both fruit grower and student. High schools and special 
agricultural schools devoting some time to the particular study of horti- 
culture will find in this book the themes for their most profitable con- 
sideration. 

The reader will be favorably impressed with the spirit of the writer 
throughout, particularly on questions where authorities may differ; the 
vigor and novelty of treatment are refreshing to those who are familiar 
with older works on the subject. 



PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION 

Productive Orcharding was first printed early in January, 
1914, less than four years ago, but since each year sees changes 
in the science and art of growing fruit, some of them slight and 
others of great importance, it has seemed well to revise it. 
Some of the revisions have been suggested by others, and some 
have grown out of the continued experience of the author. 

For the many helpful suggestions that have been received, 
as well as for the many kindly expressions of good will toward 
the book, I wish to express my very sincere thanks. 

Fred C. Sears 
Amherst, Massachusetts, 

September 25, 1917. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Outlook for Orcharding 1 

II. Orchard Lands 8 

III. Selecting Varieties and Buying Nursery Stock 24 

IV. Establishing the Orchard 44 

V. Cropping the Orchard 66 

VI. Orchard Culture 77 

VII. Orchard Implements 91 

VIII. Fertilizers 100 

IX. Cover Crops 108 

X. Pruning 119 

XI. Orchard Insects 142 

XII. Diseases of Fruit Trees 163 

XIII. Spraying Apparatus 175 

XIV. Spraying Materials 189 

XV. The Spraying Campaign 201 

XVI. Renovating Old Orchards 212 

XVII. Picking and Handling Fruit 229 

XVIII. Storing Fruit 245 

XIX. Grading and Packing 258 

XX. Marketing 277 

XXI. Advertising 287 

XXII. Laws Affecting Orcharding 298 

Index 311 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG, PAGE 

A Profitable Baldwin Apple Tree Frontispiece 

1. One Reason Why Orcharding Will Not be Overdone! 3 

2. Another Reason Why Orcharding Will Not be Overdone 5 

3. Still Another Reason Why Orcharding Vnll Not be Overdone 6 

4. A Good Orchard Country 11 

5. An Ideal Country for Orchard 13 

6. Northern Spy Apple 26 

7. A Baldwin Apple 28 

8. Yellow Bellfiower Apple 39 

9. Nursery Tree with a Poor Fork 41 

10. A Nursery Tree That Is too Heavy 41 

11. Finishing the Land with a Blanker Before Beginning to Lay off the 

Orchard 46 

12. Diagram Showing Method of Lajdng off a Field for Planting an 

Orchard 48 

13. Diagram for Measuring Boards. Drawn to Scale 49 

14. Staking off Orchard by Means of Two Measuring Boards 50 

15- Planting Board for Locating Tree in Setting , 50 

16. Heeling in Nursery Stock 51 

17. A Load of Nursery Trees Ready for the Setting Gang 52 

18. Gang of Men Setting Trees 52 

19. Ready to Set a Two Year Apple Tree 54 

20. Same Tree as ShowTi in Figure 19, Set 54 

21. Same Tree as Shown in Figures 19 and 20 After Pruning 56 

22. Pruning a One-year-old ''^Vhip" 56 

23. An Extreme Case of High Heading 57 

24. A Low Headed Five-year-old Peach Tree 59 

25. An Apple Tree with a Medium Head, about Thirty Inches 60 

26. A Poor Fork on a Ben Davis Apple Tree 60 

27. Gravenstein Apple Trees as Permanents with Cherries as "Fillers" . . 62 

28. Late Potatoes in a Young Peach Orchard 66 

29. Soybeans as a Companion Crop 67 

30. Pea-beans as an Orchard Crop 69 

31. Squashes as an Orchard Crop 71 

32. Potatoes in a Bearing Apple Orchard 72 

33. Strawberries in a Young Peach Orchard 74 

34. Clean Cultivation in an Old Renovated Orchard 78 

35. Mowing the Grass in a Sod Orchard 79 

zi 



xil ILLUSTRATIONS 

36. A Tree Girdled by Mice and Saved by Bridge Grafting 82 

37. A Compromise Method of Handling the Land in the Orchard, Sod 

Along the Tree Rows and Cultivation Between 89 

38. A Gang of Three Eight-inch Plows 93 

39. A Disc Plow for Orchard Work 94 

40. The Acme Harrow 96 

41. Orchard Cultivator with Heavj^, Rigid Teeth 96 

42. Light Draft Orchard Cultivator 97 

43. Grape-hoe at Work in Young Orchard 98 

44. Crimson Clover as a Cover Crop 110 

45. Buckwheat as a Cover Crop 114 

46. Young Apple Tree Started on Wrong Road by Bad Pruning 119 

47. An Apple Fruit Spur 120 

48. Pear Branch Well Supplied with Fruit Spurs 121 

49. Young Peaches Just Set , 122 

50. Spurs of the European Plum '. 123 

51. Cherry Spurs : 123 

52. Blossoms of Japanese Plum 124 

53. Blossoms of European Plum 125 

54. Cherries Just Set 125 

55. Sutton Apple Tree 127 

56. Bradshaw Plum Tree 127 

57. Burbank Plum Tree 129 

58. Well-shaped Baldwin Apple Tree 130 

59. Two-edged Saw 131 

60. Good Saw for Small Trees 132 

61. Excellent Saw for Heavy Pruning 132 

62. Good Saw for Ordinary Pruning 132 

63. Excellent Type of Pruning Shears 133 

64. Good Type of Pruning Knife 134 

65. Good Combination Knife 134 

66. liong Stub Left in Pruning 138 

67. Old Stub Beginning to Decay 138 

68. A Well-made Wound 139 

69. A Well-made Wound Beginning to Heal 139 

70. A Well-made Wound That Has Entu-ely Healed Over 139 

71. Scab, or Black-spot of the Apple 166 

72. Apple Canker 168 

73. Black-knot of the Plum 172 

74. Plum Tree Badly Affected with Black-knot 173 

75. Same Plum Tree, after Knots Have Been Cut Out 173 

76. Using Bucket Pump on a Bearing Apple Tree 175 

77. Knapsack Sprayer 176 

78. Barrel Outfit with Collapsible Ladder 177 



ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 

79. Barrel Spray Outfit with Two Extra Barrels of Water 178 

80. Large, Double-action, Hand Pump with 200-gallon Tank 180 

81 . Gas Power Sprayer 181 

82. Gasolene Power Outfit 182 

83. Small Gasolene Power Spraj'er 183 

84a. Old Style of Vermorel Nozzle 184 

846. Angle Vermorel Nozzle 184 

85a. Bordeaux Nozzle 185 

856. Disc Nozzle 185 

86. Long- and Short-tailed Hose Couplings 186 

87. Spray Injury on Apples 191 

88. Proper Condition of Apple Blossoms for Spraying Before They Open 205 

89. Gravenstein Apples Sprayed for Scab 207 

90. Gravenstein Apples Not Sprayed 207 

91. Good Type of Tree for Renovating 213 

92. Rather Difficult Tree to Renovate, One Which Will Require Several 

Years to Work Over 214 

93. Difficult Type of Tree to Renovate, but One Which Has Little 

Value as it Stands 214 

94. Poor Type of Orcharding for Renovating 215 

95. Old Orchard Before Work of Renovating Began 218 

96. Same Orchard, after Three Years' Treatment 218 

97. Beginning Work of Renovating an Old Apple Tree 220 

98. Same Tree, After Three Years' Treatment 220 

99. Old Apple Tree Before Beginning Renovation 221 

100. Same Tree, De-horned After One Year's Treatment 221 

101. Same Tree, After One Season's Growth 222 

102. Same Tree, After Three Years' Treatment 222 

103. Trunk of a Tree Damaged by Too Much Nitrogen 223 

104. An Orchard Damaged by Too Much Nitrogen 224 

105. An Old, Neglected Orchard When Renovation Was Begun 226 

106. Same Orchard, After Five Years' Treatment 227 

107. A Pair of Thinning Shears 229 

108. Boys Thinning Japanese Plums 230 

109. Branch of Apple Tree That Was Thinned Twice 231 

110. Boys Thinning Apples 232 

111. Picking Cherries 234 

112. A Good Picking Basket 235 

113. Poor Type of Picking Basket for Fruit, Yet One Often Used 235 

114. Picking Apples Into Bags 236 

115. Picking Apples from Well-loaded Trees 238 

116. Peaches Picked into Oak Picking Baskets 240 

117. Attacking an Old-timer 241 

118. A Load of Apples on the Way to Market 242 



xiv ILLUSTRATIONS 

119. Distributing Barrels in the Apple Orchard 243 

120. A Good Type of Farm Storage House 249 

121. Storage Building at the Massachusetts Agricultural College 252 

122. Type of Apple Storage House Found in the Annapolis Valley, 

Nova Scotia 253 

123. Diagram of Cross-section of Walls of Storage House in Figure 122. . 254 

124. An Attractive Face to a Barrel of Apples 261 

125. Stemmers 262 

126. Ordinary Barrel Press with a Bar Follower 263 

127. Barrel Press with Circle Follower 263 

128. Swing-bail Basket Used in Packing Apples in Barrels 264 

129. Face of a Barrel of Apples Using 19 Apples 3^ Inches in Diameter 266 

130. Face of a Barrel of Apples Using 27 Apples 3 Inches in Diameter . . 266 

131. Face of a Barrel of Apples Using 40 Apples 2)4 Inches in Diameter 266 

132. Good Type of Packing Table for Boxing Apples 267 

133. Diagram Showing Method of Starting the 2-2 Pack 268 

134. Diagram Showing Method of Starting the 3-2 Pack 268 

135. Diagram Showing the Arrangement of Apples in the First and 

Third Layers of a 2-2 Box of Apples with 96 Apples in the Box 269 

136. Diagram Showing the Arrangement of Apples in the Second and 

Fourth Layers of a 2-2 Box of Apples with 96 Apples in the Box 269 

137. Diagram Showing the Arrangement of Apples in the First, Third 

and Fifth Layers of a 3-2 Box of Apples with 188 Apples in the 
Box 271 

138. Diagram Showing the Arrangement of Apples in the Second and 

Fourth Layers of a 3-2 Box of Apples with 188 Apples in the Box 271 

139. Diagram Showing the "Straight " Pack 272 

140. A Western Type of Box Press 273 

141. Excellent Type of Box Press which Can be Made at Home 274 

142. The Greatest Single Problem in Marketing Fruit is to Have Good 

Fruit 277 

143. Boxes of Western Apples 278 

144. Pasteboard Carton for Fancy Apples 280 

145. Climax Peach Basket Used as a Retail Package for Apples 281 

146. Climax Peach Basket with Cover on 282 

147. Splint Basket Used for Apples 283 

148. Attractive Package for the Retail Trade 283 

149. Probably the Most Famous Fruit Label in Use 288 

150. Good TyY>Q of Advertising Wrapper 289 

151. Good Type of Advertising for Apple Barrels 290 

152. Excellent "Guarantee" Label from the Pacific Coast 291 

153. Another Guarantee Label from an Eastern Orchardist 291 

154. Outside Cover of an Advertising Leaflet 292 

155. A Magazine Advertisement that is Sure to Attract Attention 296 



PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING 

CHAPTER I 
THE OUTLOOK FOR ORCHARDING 

If the agricultural history^ of the twentieth century is ever 
written, the writer believes that one of the most significant 
features of such a history will be the account of the great 
interest in orcharding which developed during the latter part 
of the first decade of the century. That interest is still at its 
height. Men from all walks of life are turning toward orchard- 
ing as the one branch of farming in which they would like to 
engage. Wealthy men are setting out orchards (and commercial 
orchards) on their estates, farmers in orchard sections are en- 
larging their fruit plantations, while bank clerks, insurance men, 
and retired ministers are either investing their savings in small 
farms which are to be set out to fruit trees, or have bought an 
interest in some development scheme in the West. No wonder 
that there is a shaking of heads among the conservative element 
of our fruit growers and a wondering as to what the outcome 
will be. No wonder that even the most enthusiastic advocates of 
orcharding are speculating as to whether it may not be overdone. 

A Good Occupation. — But while there has undoubtedly been 
a Avonderful interest in the fruit business in recent years, and 
while many who have gone into it, without sufficient thought and 
preparation, undoubtedly will be disappointed, and while we 
may even have to admit that the price of fruit is likely to de- 
cline, yet it still seems to the writer that for the right man, in 
the right place and with the right methods, the growing of fruit 
offers a healthful and delightful occupation with at least a 
reasonable assurance of satisfactory financial returns. Let us 
examine the situation briefly and see what ground there may be 
for such a belief and what conditions one must fulfil if he ex- 
pects to be successful. 

1 



THE OUTLOOK FOR ORCHARDING 



The Question of Over-production. — To begin with, are we 
in such immediate and pressing danger from over-production? 
It is true that the papers are full of accounts of men who 
have started orchards; it is also true that any one who is sup- 
posed to know about such matters is besieged, either personally 
or by letter, by those who want to grow fruit, and it is probably 
true that where there is so much smoke there must be more or less 
fire. But the writer is very strongly of the opinion that the 
percentage of smoke is very large. 

Census Figures. — There are various methods by which we 
may judge of the imminence of this over-production danger, 
none of them perhaps wery accurate but all of them suggestive. 
The first consists of the United States figures. Uncle Sam's esti- 
mate on the subject. If we take the question of apples alone, 
which of course is the big end of the subject, we find first that the 
production has steadily declined since 1896. Here are the esti- 
mates from 1895 to 1911. 



1895—60,500,000 barrels 

1896—69,000,000 barrels 

1897—41,000,000 barrels 

1898—28,500,000 barrels 

1899—58,500,000 barrels 

1900—57,000,000 barrels 

1901 — 26,970,000 barrels 

1902—46,025,000 barrels 

1903 — 42,626,000 barrels 



1904—45,360,000 barrels 
1905—24,300,000 barrels 
1906—38,280,000 barrels 
1907—29,540,000 barrels 
1908 — 25,850,000 barrels 
1909—25,415,000 barrels 
1910—23,825,000 barrels 
1911—28,600,000 barrels 



Are not these figures tremendously significant and do they 
not seem to indicate that it will be several years before we get 
back even to our former high-water mark? And we must not 
forget that at the same time that the production of apples has 
been declining the population has been increasing, so that it 
will require many more apples than 69,000,000 barrels to pro- 
vide as many per capita as we had in 1896. 

Another significant fact along the same line, which is brought 
out by the census figures, is in relation to the apple trees of the 
country. There were in 1910 in round numbers fifty million less 
bearing apple trees than in 1900 and only sixty-five million trees 



SOME ORCHARDS ABANDONED 3 

not yet in bearing. So that when all the trees in the country 
in 1910 had come into bearing, there would be only fifteen million 
more than in 1900, provided no trees died in the meantime. But 
every one knows that they are dying by the thousand every year. 
Even in relatively good orchard sections one may see many and 
many an orchard like that shown in Figure 1 which is already 
practically a negligible quantity so far as production is con- 




FiG. 1. — One reason why orcharding will not be overdone! An orchard killed by scale and 
neglect. There are thousands like it. 



cerned. And in the really poor sections, particularly if the San 
Jose scale is there, such orchards are the rule and not the 
exception. 

Some Orchards Abandoned. — Passing now from Uncle Sam^s 
estimates to the opinions of less important persons, we find it a 
very general opinion among people who have given the matter 
some thought, that a great many young orchards which were set 
out with high hopes a few years ago are already abandoned as 
hopeless. The writer himself can think of dozens. This was 
inevitable, considering the people who set them out, men and 



4 THE OUTLOOK FOR ORCHARDING 

women who knew absolutely nothing of orcharding except what 
they read in the magazines or daily papers. Go into any section 
except our very best orchard regions and you will find plenty of 
examples like the orchard shown in Figure 1. One need have 
little fear of the competition of such an orchard as this. 

Insects and Diseases. — Another thing which will help to 
delay this dreaded time of over-production is the constantly 
increasing list of orchard pests. Men have attempted to compute 
the loss from this source and have placed it among the millions 
of bushels. But whether we accept this estimate or not, no one 
who has seen such things at work as the bitter rot of the apple 
and the brown rot of the peach and plum or the codling moth of 
the apple and the curculio of the peach and plum can fail to 
realize that the loss is tremendous. 

Slow Returns. — Still another factor which is always going to 
act as a brake on orchard setting is the length of time required 
to bring trees to profitable bearing. If a man starts in the dairy 
business he can buy a cow and sit right down and milk her 
(always provided of course that she is giving milk), so that his 
income begins at once ; or if he starts in the trucking business it 
requires only a season to get returns. But an orchard is a long- 
time investment, and relatively few people are going to have the 
patience and the pocketbook to wait for returns (Fig. 2). 

No Advertising. — If one is cataloging the hopeful factors in 
the orchard situation, he certainly should not omit the fact that 
up to date there has been almost nothing done in the way of 
advertising. If red apples were as persistently advertised as 
some patent medicines, the supply never would overtake the 
demand. This is one of the improvements which ought to be 
undertaken next, and the writer believes so emphatically in its 
value that he has devoted an entire chapter to the subject. 

Bad Marketing. — If one wants further hope for the future of 
the orchard business, think of the way in which most of our 
fruit is marketed at the present time ! If any one can think of 
methods better calculated to decrease consumption than those 
frequently in use he is a genius. Poor fruit, poorly handled and 
worse packed, is shipped into the market without the sUghtest 



THE RIGHT MAN 5 

regard for the demand at that particular time and place. What 
would happen to any other manufacturer if he followed the 
methods of many of our apple manufacturers? Bankruptcy 
sure and speedy ! It simply shows w^hat a good business orchard- 
ing is, that it has kept up under the methods too often in vogue. 
The Right Man. — We have said that for the right people 
carrying on an orchard by right methods and in the right place 
the future is anything but dark. Let us close this brief review 
of the orchard situation wdth a word on this desirable combina- 
tion. Who are the right people? Anybody with a love for the 




Fig. 2. — Another reason why orcharding wall not be over-done. This young orchard has been 
set five years and some of the trees are little if any larger than wnen they were set. 

business and who has the knowledge, or who can hire somebody 
with the knowledge, to do the work. To begin with, the man 
brought up on the farm has an immense advantage over the man 
who is city bom and bred. He knows already the practical de- 
tails of farming. The writer is always doubtful about the 
success of one who knows nothing of farm life. It takes a 
tremendous amount of enthusiasm and hard work to overcome 
the handicap. Here is an example of the kind of man who ought 
not to go into orcharding. He wrote to our Agricultural College, 
saying that he expected to set a large orchard, would use fifty 
thousand trees, and since the nurserjrinen must make a lot of 



6 



THE OUTLOOK FOR ORCHARDING 



money out of their business did we not think it would be well for 
him to propagate his own trees. And in the event that we 
agreed with him as to the advisability of this, would it not 
be well for him to '' start the apple seeds in the house during 
the winter so as to have the little trees well under way by 
spring." While the writer does not want to discourage unduly 
the city man who wants an orchard, it does seem to him that 
few of them can qualify as '' the right man." 




Fig. 3. — Still another reason why orcharding will not be over-done. The owner of th 
orchard was a liveryman and wanted hay! He had the good sense not to try to raise boiL. 
hay and apples on the same land. 

Now while there are, of course, many exceptions, it would 
seem that two classes of orchard ventures are especially likely to 
be successful. One of these is that of the farmer in an orchard 
section who already has his living assured and who decides to 
add to his orchard plantings. And the other is that of the man 
who has money enough to go into orcharding on a reasonably 
large scale so that he can devote his time to it if he has 
the knowledge himself or if not can hire an expert foreman. 
As a rule the thing for the inexperienced man to do, if he 
is sure that he wants an orchard, is to work with some practical 
orchard man until he acquires a reasonable knowledge of the 
business. 

Right Methods are only less important than right men. The 
writer has tried, in the following pages, to suggest some of the 



RIGHT METHODS 7 

things which he thinks are of importance. And even the best o£ 
men with the best of methods cannot succeed if they ignore too 
much the question of the right place. An uncongenial soil, a 
frosty location, undue exposure to fierce winds, add just so much 
to the unavoidable handicap of the man who grows fruit. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss tlie interest in orcharding during the first decade of the twentieth 

century. 

2. How did the production of apples vary from 1895 to 1911 ? 

3. ^^^lat are the principal factors which keep down the production of 

apples? 

4. What type of man is most likely to be successful as an orchardist? 

5. Give some examples of successful orcharding that you have seen. 

6. Tell of unsuccessful orchard ventures that you have seen or read about 

and give the reasons for failure. 



CHAPTER II 
ORCHARD LANDS 

While there is considerable variation in the type of soil re- 
quired by different classes of orchard frnits, and while in a few 
cases we have even worked out, with considerable accuracy, the 
soil preferences of individual varieties, yet it is surprising how 
nearly the ideal orchard conditions for most fruits agree. For 
example, they all agree in being subject to damage by winds, 
none of them thrive well on wet lands, and all of them are safer 
on lands which are not liable to frosts. We may therefore feel 
fairly safe in generalizing on orchard lands, and the following 
score card has been worked out for use in classes. In this is a 
list of the points which ought to be included in an examination of 
an orchard site, and an effort is made to estimate the relative 
importance of these different points. The score card is, of course, 
by no means ideal, but it does include the most important items 
and it ought to be suggestive to a prospective orchard planter. 

Score Card for Orchard Site 

Counts. 

A. Soil 30 

a. Surface soil 15 

1. Fertility j chemical character; too fertile or not 

fertile enough. 

2. Adaptation to fruit grown. 

3. Ease of working. 

4. Sour? 

5. Humus content. 

6. Subsoil 15 

1. Ease of penetration by roots. 

2'. Fertility; pure sand vs. gravelly clay. 

B. Water drainage 30 

a. Surface drainage 10 

1. Good? Does water stand? 

2. Too much ? 

(a) Washing, loss of soil and fertility. 
(6) Loss of water. 

8 



SOIL 9 

b. Sub-drainage 20 

1. Enough? Is soil soggy? 

2. Too much? Is soil too dry? 

C. Atmospheric drainage 15 

a. Will cold air drain oil'? Is there slope enough? 
6. Does cold air come down from slopes above; is 
orchard at foot of a long slope? 

c. Is there any obstruction at the bottom of orchard 

to hold cold air? 

D. Aspect or slope 15 

a. With reference to sun 5 

1. Ripening and coloring of fruit. 

2. Frost injury on eastern slope. 

3. Sun-scald. 

b. With reference to winds 10 

1. Does land slope towards prevailing winds? 

E. Windbreaks 10 

a. Nearby and distant. 
6. Kinds of trees. 

c. Distance away that is best. 

d. Is it open at bottom? 

e. Is it owned by proprietor of orchard? 

Total 100 100 

Many of the points given are self-explanatory, yet a short dis^ 
cussion may help with most of them. 

A. Soil. — a. Surface Soil. — 1. The fertility of the soil, 
while not as important as the general character of the soil, is still 
well worth considering. If the land is " run out " it is by no 
means worth as much for an orchard as though it were in ' ' good 
heart." Of course it can be brought up again in fertility, but 
this takes time and money and the writer has started enough 
orchards to learn that poor, run-out soil is a big handicap in 
developing growthy and shapely trees. To overcome it, one ought 
to have some bam manure available and one has to study much 
more carefully w^hat kinds of commercial fertilizers to use and 
when to use them. 

2. The adaptation of the soil to the fruit to be grown. If one 
is growing peaches, he prefers a light or medium loam, and if he 
must depart from this he would rather have a sandy soil than a 



10 ORCHARD LANDS 

heavy clay. If he is growing pears he wants, as a class, much 
heavier soils than for peaches ; usually a fairly heavy clay loam. 
This question of the adaptability of certain soils to certain classes 
or varieties of fruits is one which has only, within the last few 
years, been studied at all seriously. More and better work has 
been done on apple soils than any others. Near the close of this 
chapter the matter is discussed more in detail. 

3. Ease of working the soil. One would discount a soil that 
was stony or rocky, or that was full of stumps or was a very 
heavy clay. Personally the writer thinks there is a great deal to 
be said in favor of rather light lands. They will not hold fer- 
tilizers as well as heavier soils, and some people think they do not 
hold moisture as well, though the writer doubts it. But they 
work so much more easily and there is so much less danger of 
injuring the soil or of damaging the trees if the soil isn't handled 
just right. With a heavy clay, one frequently has to wait days 
after a heavy rain before he can get on the land to work it ; and 
there is so much more likely to be winter injury to the trees if 
the soil happens to have been cultivated a little too late, or if too 
much nitrogen has been used, or even when everything has been 
handled right, when the winter happens to be especially severe. 

4. Is the soil sour? If it is, in most cases lime has to be 
applied to secure the best results. There is quite a common 
(and the writer believes a well-founded) prejudice in favor of 
soil of a limestone formation. And when one can not get this the 
next best plan seems to be to apply lime in some form. 

5. Is there plenty of humus in the soil or has it been worked 
out till the physical condition has been injured ? If the soil lacks 
humus it must be supplied. It might seem like a simple proposi- 
tion to get humus back into the soil, but unless one has barn 
manure available he will find it an up-hill matter with either 
very heavy or very light soils. The catch crop intended to plow 
in simply will not grow. And one has a chance to exercise a lot 
of ingenuity and patience to get things started right. And the 
soil which requires all this is not as good an orchard soil by 
just so much as the one which is already in shape. The impor- 
tance of plenty of humus in an orchard soil is only beginning 
to be realized. 



WATER DRAINAGE 



11 



h. Subsoil. — Under this head there are two main points to be 
considered: First, the ease of penetration by the roots of the 
trees, and, second, the fertility of the soil. Lands with impervious 
subsoils are not satisfactory for any fruits, and a good, medium, 
gravelly subsoil is more fertile than a pure sand. A good subsoil 
is a very important part of the orchard equipment. In the first 
place a large part of the root system is in the subsoil, and in the 
second place it is very difficult to improve a subsoil. Drainage 
is about the only thing to which one can resort. 




Fig. 4. — A good orchard country. Rolling land that gives good water drainage and 

atmospheric drainage. 



B. Water Drainage. — The score card divides this into surface 
and sub-drainage. In reference to the surface we have to con- 
sider whether there is enough, so that the water will not stand on 
the land. Even in winter standing water is objectionable (Fig. 
4). Second, is there too much surface drainage so that the land 
is subject to washing ? By washing, both soluble plant food and 
actual soil are lost. In times of drouth, the water from a chance 
shower will run off before it can soak in. A sharp slope on light 
lands is almost sure to suffer more from drouth than the more 



12 ORCHARD LANDS 

level lands near by, simply because the water does not have time 
to soak in. 

Sub-drainage. — Here again it is a question of amount. Is 
there too little, just enough, or too much ? Trees will seldom do 
well in a wet subsoil. The growth is poor and they are in danger 
of winter-killing and various other troubles. On the other hand 
if there is too much sub-drainage we have an exceptionally dry 
subsoil and consequently lack of thrift in the trees. And more- 
over, the first-grown on such trees is certain to lack in quality. 

C. Atmospheric Drainage. — This, of course, is of importance 
only in sections subject to frosts, but as most of our best orchard 
lands are in sections where frosts may occur, it ought to be con- 
sidered in choosing the orchard site. Frost is one of those inter- 
mittent troubles which one may escape for years and which then 
swoop down on the orchard in a night and wipe out the profits of 
the whole year. It is particularly comforting to know that the 
orchard is on lands which are not subject to this danger. And 
of course if one gets a crop when most of the neighbors have 
lost theirs, the profit is correspondingly greater. It is surprising 
how little elevation and how little slope are required to prevent 
frost. The writer has seen an elevation of not over ten feet 
make a difference of from 75 to 100 per cent in frost injury. 
The points to be considered are: (1) Is there slope enough to 
the field under investigation to carry off the cold air? (2) Does 
cold air drain down from slopes above to the orchard, i.e., is the 
orchard at the foot of a long slope? If it is, then it receives not 
only its own share of the cold air but a large amount from fields 
higher up the slope, and frosts are consequently more likely to 
occur and more serious when they do occur, (3) Is there any 
obstruction at the bottom of the orchard to hold cold air and bank 
it up in the orchard? 

D. Aspect or Slope. — Personally the writer believes that 
this matter of aspect has frequently been over-worked and yet 
there are circumstances under which it is well worth careful 
consideration. If a man is an orchardist pure and simple, and 
wants to set out eveiy available acre, no slope would be dis- 
carded on account of its direction. On the other hand, if one is a 



WINDBREAKS 



13 



general farmer and wants to set one orchard on the best orchard 
site of the farm, then the question of slope is worthy of careful 
consideration. AVith reference to the sun, we have the ripening 
and coloring effects of a southern exposure which are surely 
worth having if they can be had without danger from frosts. 
But in sections and locations where frosts are a serious menace, 
southern and southeastern slopes ought to be avoided for all 
fruits like Japanese plums, which blossom very early and are 
frequently damaged by frosts. Lastly there is the matter of 
sun-scald. Where this is serious one ought certainly to avoid a 
southwestern slope. On the question of aspect with reference 




Fig. 5. — An ideal country for orchard. Slope enoujth to provide good drainage, yet smooth 
enough to admit of cultivation. 

to wind it need only be said that in those sections where there 
are very strong winds from one or two directions, as frequently 
happens, it is very desirable to avoid those slopes. Many sec- 
tions, for example, are subject to very strong northwest gales and 
only slightly less to southwest winds. The orchardist therefore 
prefers to avoid these slopes, other things being equal. Fre- 
quently other things are not equal and we choose one of these 
slopes in spite of its direction. But such lands are not as desir- 
able as those w^hich do not have this handicap (Fig. 5). 

E. Windbreaks. — A great deal has been said and written 
about windbreaks. They seem to the writer to be another factor 



14 ORCHARD LANDS 

m the orchard site question which has sometimes been over- 
worked and yet they are important. The one advantage of the 
windbreak which is likely to appeal to any man who has to get 
out in the orchard and do the actual work, is that it frequently 
enables one to work with more comfort and consequently with 
greater efficiency. The two operations in which this advantage 
will be noticed most are in pruning and spraying. Most of our 
pruning is done at a season of the year when the temperature is 
likely to be too low for real comfort. If a man is pruning some 
day in March in the northwest corner of an orchard on a western 
or northwestern slope, when there is a gale from that direction, 
he will very soon appreciate the value of anything that will get 
him out of that wind. Perhaps he resorts to the barn, but that 
does not get the orchard pruned. If he is lucky enough to have, 
as a part of his orchard, a comer which slopes to the southeast 
and which is, perhaps, also protected by a windbreak, he will see 
the practical value of shelter from winds. The case is even 
stronger when spraying is considered. In this operation one not 
only has the physical discomfort to contend with (and physical 
comfort or discomfort counts for a lot in getting any work done 
properly), but he frequently finds it a practical impossibility to 
get the spray where he wants it. It so happens that each of the 
two orchards with which the writer has most to do, has many 
different blocks on various slopes and with varying protections 
from the winds. And times without number in both orchards 
it has been possible to continue the work of spraying or pruning 
because it was possible to get away from the wind which happened 
to be blowing. A windbreak certainly pays in comfort and 
efficiency. 

Kinds of Windbreaks. — If one is* to have a windbreak it is very 
desirable to choose a kind of tree for it which will harbor neither 
fungous diseases nor insects which might attack the trees of the 
orchard. For example, one would not want to have red cedar 
trees in a windbreak for an apple orchard, because of the cedar 
rust, a fungus which at one stage attacks the apple and at an* 
other the red cedar. This is much more important in the south 
than in the north. Oaks are generally to be avoided because 
they harbor the tent caterpillar, and if one is unfortunate enough 



SPECIAL SOILS 15 

to live in a district infested by the brown-tail and gypsy moths 
both of these insects are also partial to oaks. On the other hand, 
it seems to be the common opinion that pines and spruces among 
evergreens, and maples among deciduous trees, are particularly 
suitable for this purpose. 

Distance Away. — No Mdndbreak, either natural timber or trees 
planted especially for the purpose, ought to be very close to the 
orchard. Fifty feet is near enough, and even a greater distance 
is better. Where the trees for the break are planted at about the 
same time as the orchard and come along with it there is less 
danger from their encroachment than where a new orchard is set 
out beside an old established row of trees, because in the latter 
case, as will be readily seen, the tree roots are already established 
and the fruit trees do not get a fair chance. If it is on the 
lower side of the orchard, the windbreak ought to be open at the 
bottom to allow for atmospheric drainage, otherwise there will 
be a frosty area next to the windbreak. Lastly, it is decidedly 
unwise to plant an orchard and rely for a windbreak on a block 
of timber owned by a neighbor. One never knows when the 
neighbor will decide to cut off the timber. 

SPECIAL SOILS FOR DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF APPLES 

Allusion has been made to the fact that the soil requirements 
of apple varieties have been more fully worked out than those of 
any other fruits. The writer wishes to close this discussion of 
orchard lands by quoting from a special article prepared by his 
friend, Mr. H. J. Wilder, of the United States Bureau of Soils, 
for the Tribune Farmer. Mr. Wilder probably knows more than 
any other man in the United States about apple soils, which makes 
his conclusions of special value. 

" From agricultural experience already established, it is apparent that 
many of the leading special crop areas have a very definite relation to the 
character of the soils, and that all crops do not give equally good results 
on the same kind of soil. Carrying this principle further, it is purposed 
to point out that even the difi'erent varieties of the same crop may differ 
greatly in soil requirements. This is illustrated by a considerable number 
of varieties of apples, which have been under study for several years. 

" The opinion has been frequently expressed in the past, not only in 
the agricultural press, but also in many horticultural books, that almost 



16 ORCHARD LANDS 

any deep, well-drained soil, on hill or slope, is adapted to apple growing. 
Data from a large number of orchards in many of the States east of the 
Mississippi show this definition of a good apple soil to be fraught with 
danger. Depth and good drainage of soil are, without doubt, fundamental 
essentials, but a very considerable percentage of soils in the Appalachian 
Mountain region and associated foothills is so excessively ' deep and well 
drained,' on account of its sandy character, that it can not compete witli 
better soils in orchard production. 

" Unfavorable Soil Conditions. — A still greater danger lies in the 
fact that so many men assume every hillside to be well drained. Shales and 
sandstones make up a large part of the Appalachian system. On level areas 
these rocks are flat, or nearly so, but on hillsides they range from gently 
to very steeply inclined. On such slopes erosion has prevented the accumu- 
lation of a soil covering of great depth. Much of the water from heavy 
rains rushes down the slopes, while that which soaks into the soil percolates 
down to the underlying shale, and if in excess flows along laterally and 
seeps out to the surface, giving rise to many spots of ill-drained soil. The 
same unfavorable condition is caused by a subsoil too clayey, or for some 
other reason too compact to allow ready downward percolation of moisture. 

•' Notwithstanding all that has been said, too, about selecting a deep 
soil, many orchards are still being planted on soils of so little depth above 
the underlying unbroken rock that little profit can ever come from them. 

'' The loss from choosing a soil for orchard planting that is not 
adapted to the purpose is so much more serious than a similar mistake with 
an annual crop that too much care can scarcely be taken in selecting the 
most suitable soils located on sites otherwise favorable. Because of the 
importance of such selection, investigations have been carried on to 
determine in so far as possible the types of soil most favorable to the 
different varieties of apples. 

" It is recognized that these data are far from complete, and that 
the behavior of the different varieties under a range of soil conditions 
must be observed carefully for a long term of years before statements of 
adaptedness may be made positively, but enough facts have already been 
secured to make the indications of value to the planter; and it is hoped, 
in addition, so to arouse interest in the subject that growers and others 
will observe and collect data as occasion presents itself. 

" Baldwin Soils. — If soils are thought of as grading from heavy to 
light, corresponding to the range from clay to sand, then soils grading 
from medium to semi-light fulfil best the requirements of the Baldwin. 
Following definitely the classification standards of the Bureau of Soils 
with reference to the proportions of clay, silt and sands, this grouping 
would include the medium to light loams, the heavy, sandy loams, and 
also the medium, sandy loams, provided they were underlain by soil 
material not lighter than medium loam nor heavier than a light or medium 
clay loam of friable structure. 



BALDWIN SOILS 17 

" From this broad generalization it will be seen that the surface soil 
should contain an appreciable amount of sand. The sand, moreover, should 
not be all of one grade — that is, a high percentage of coarse sand would 
give a poor soil, whereas a moderate admixture of it with the finer grades 
of sand, together with sufficient clay and silt, would work no harm. In 
general, the sand content should be of the finer grades, but soils also occur, 
though comparatively rare, wliieh would be too heavy for this variety 
were it not for a marked content of the coarse sands, the effect of which 
is to make the soil mass much more friable and open than would be ex- 
pected with the presence of so much clay. Such soil dries quickly after a 
rain, and is not to be classed as a moist soil. It will never clod if worked 
under conditions at all reasonable. 

" If the subsoil be so clayey or heavy that moisture does not percolate 
down through it readily, a Baldwin of poor color, with a skin more or less 
greasy, is the usual result. 

" The ideal to be sought is a heavy, fine, sandy loam, or light, mellow 
loam, underlaid by plastic clay loam or heavy, silty loam. It is fully 
realized that the individual may not possess or easily acquire just this 
ideal, but the soil that most closely resembles it should be chosen. If 
corn be grown on such soil the lower leaves will cure doA\Ti before cutting 
time, giving evidence of moderately early maturity. This is one of the 
safe criteria by which to be guided in choosing soil for this variety. 

" Mention was not made in the above description of the color of the 
soil. The desirability of a surface soil of dark brown, the color being 
due to the presence of decaying organic matter, is unquestionable, and 
is generally recognized; and if the soil be not that color the successful 
orchardist will so make it by the incorporation of organic matter by 
means of leguminous crops or otherwise. It is often cheaper to buy soil 
with a good organic content, or humus supply, than it is to be compelled 
to put it there after purchase before good crops can be secured. Hence, 
this is purely an economic feature. The warning should be given, how- 
ever, that soil should not be purchased or planted to apples of any variety 
merely because it is dark colored and rich in humus. The soil should 
be selected because of its textural and structural adaptation, regardless of 
the organic content; then if such soils happen to be well supplied witli 
organic matter, so much the better; if not, it may be supplied. 

" To modify, however, by the addition of humus, the physical con- 
dition of a sand until it resembles a sandy loam as far down as tree 
roots ordinarily extend is unquestionably an expensive process, and as 
orchards are grown for profit, the soils on which they are to be planted 
should be so selected for the different varieties as to furnish the most 
favorable condition possible before going to the additional expense of 
trying to change their character artificially. 

" While soils so deficient in humus as to be leachy in the case of 
2 



18 ORCHARD LANDS 

sands, but stiff, intractable and clayey in the case of clays, clay loams and 
loams, should have their humus content increased until these unfavorable 
conditions for crop growth of any kind be overcome so far as possible, 
it is not possible by the addition of humus so to change the physical 
characteristics of a given soil that its inherent physical character be 
negligible, so far as its adaptation to crops or to different varieties of the 
same crop is concerned. The agricultural practice of the eastern part ot 
the United States is- replete with instances of special soil-crop-variety 
adaptation. 

" Soils for the Greening. — As the best prices for Rhode Island Green- 
ings are usually obtained in New York City, the general aim of the 
commercial grower will be to meet the preferences of that market. The 
demand there for a ' green ' Greening has usually been stronger than for 
one carrying a high blush, and while individual buyers may be found, it 
is said, who do not discriminate against the latter, most of them do so to 
the extent of 25 cents a barrel in favor of the ' green ' Greening. Of even 
more importance sometimes is the fact that a ' green ' Greening will move 
on a slow market when a blush Greening fails to do so. There is also, in 
some markets, objection to the blush Greening, from the fact that the con- 
sumer is rarely able to distinguish it from Monmouth Pippin — a red- 
cheeked green apple, which is inferior to the Rhode Island Greening and 
does not serve at all well the purpose for which the latter is bought. 

" To grow a ' green ' Rhode Island Greening to conform to the trade 
preferring it, a surface soil of heavy, silty loam or light, silty clay loam, 
underlain by silty clay loam, should be selected. Such soil will retain 
sufficient moisture to be classed as a moist soil, yet it is not so heavy 
as to be ill drained, if surface drainage is adequate. The soil should be 
moderately rich in organic matter, markedly more so than for the Baldwin. 
In contrast to the Baldwin soil in the growth of corn, it should keep the 
lower leaves of the plant green until harvesting time, or at least until late 
in the season. Such soil conditions maintain a long seasonal growth under 
uniform conditions of moisture. It is thus seen that the soils adapted to 
producing this type of Rhode Island Greening are distinct from the Bald- 
win standard. In fact, these two varieties, considered as standards, 
differ so markedly in soil requirements that the soil adaptations of other 
varieties may well be compared with them. 

" If a Greening with high blush is desired, however, to meet other 
market conditions, a soil somewhat warmer than that described should be 
selected, a deep, light, mellow loam or productive fine sandy loam being 
favorable. To secure a ' finish ' of this character soils approaching more 
nearly to the Baldwin standard are best adapted. 

" The Rhode Island Greening is more restricted in area than the 
Baldwin, not adapting itself to climatic conditions as far south as the 
Baldwin, even though suitable soils occur there. In fact, its southern 



SOILS FOR NORTHERN SPY 19 

boundary may be roughly estimated as one-fourth degree north of the 
forty-first parallel. South of that it becomes a fall apple and keeps very 
poorly. 

" Hubbardston Soils. — For the Hubbardston a rich, fine, sandy loam 
to a depth of at least a foot is preferable, and the subsoil may well be of 
the same texture. This variety does remarkably well on a soil of this kind 
in the Connecticut Valley of Massachusetts, which has been fertilized 
highly enough for tobacco, onions, or garden crops. The fruit is good size, 
well colored, and has good keeping qualities. Baldwin grown alongside is 
poorly colored and inferior in both flavor and keeping quality. This is 
undoubtedly due to the high humus content and richness of the soil, as the 
same soil in much poorer condition brings a better Baldwin. A subsoil 
containing enough clay to m_ake the fine sandy material somewhat coherent, 
or sticky, is not objectionable, but there should never be enough clay present 
to render the subsoil heavy. If the soil is too heavy or too clayey, the fruit 
is liable to be deficient in both color and flavor. Compared with the Baldwin 
soil requirements, the heaviest soils desirable for the Hubbardston lap over 
a little upon the highest soils desirable for the Baldwin, while at the other 
extreme the Hubbardston will utilize to advantage a more sandy soil than 
most other varieties of the New England-New York region. This does not 
mean that the variety will succeed on poor, light sands, for on such soils 
the apple will not attain sufficient size to be of value, nor is the tree 
vigorous; but the soil should always be very mellow. 

"Soils for Northern Spy.— rThe Northern Spy is one of the most 
exacting varieties in regard to soil requirements. To obtain good quality 
of fruit, i.e., fine texture, juiciness, and high flavor, the soil must be 
moderately heavy; and for the first two qualities alone the lighter of the 
* green ' Rhode Island Greening soils will be desirable. The fact that the 
Northern Spy is a red apple, however, makes it imperative that the color 
be well developed and the skin free from the greasy tendency. This 
necessitates a fine adjustment of soil conditions, for the heaviest of the 
soils adapted to the ' green ' Rhode Island Greening produce Northern 
Spies with greasy skins and usually of inferior color. The habit of tree 
growth of this variety, moreover, requires careful attention. Its tendency 
to grow upright seems to be accentuated by too clayey soils, if well en- 
riched, and such soils tend to promote growth faster than the tree is able 
to mature well. On the other hand, sandy soils, where producing good color 
and clear skins, fail to bring fruit satisfactory in quality with respect to 
texture and flavor, especially if the- fruit be held for very long. The 
commercial keeping quality, too, is inferior to that of the Spy grown on 
heavier soils in the same district. Hence the soil requirements of this 
variety are decidedly exacting, and are best supplied apparently by a 
medium loam underlain by a heavy loam or light clay loam — that is, a soil 
as heavy as can be selected without incurring the danger of inferior 



20 ORCHARD LANDS 

drainage, for a poorly drained soil should in no case be used. It is 
surely best not to plant Northern Spy on a soil lighter than a very heavy, 
fine, sandy loam, underlain by a light clay loam, or possibly a heavy loam. 
Good air drainage is also very essential with this variety. 

" Soils for Wagener. — The Wagener is weak in growth, and hence a 
soil that is deep, strong, mellow, and loamy should be selected. Stiff sub- 
soils are especially objectionable with this variety, and thin soils, also 
light sandy soils, should be avoided. The Wagener thus fits in nicely with 
Northern Spy in soil requirements, and its habit of early bearing makes an 
effective offset in this respect to the tardiness of the Northern Spy. In 
Massachusetts, in parts of Connecticut and New York, and in north- 
eastern Pennsylvania, Wagener is one of the most profitable sorts for filler 
purposes. 

" Mcintosh Soils. — The Mcintosh is a variety of high quality that is 
now very popular in the northeastern States. Trees of sufficient age for 
safe comparisons are rarely available, however, over any considerable range 
of soil conditions, hence no positive statement is made concerning the soil 
preferences of this variety. The indications are, nevertheless, that the 
heavier of the Baldwin soils as described are desirable for the Mcintosh. 

" Tompkins King Soils. — The Tompkins King is fully as exacting in 
soil adaptation as Northern Spy. The tree with straggling tendency of 
growth does not develop satisfactorily on sandy soils, but succeeds best 
on a moist, yet well drained soil, i.e., the lightest of the ' green ' Rhode 
Island Greening soils — a soil capable of maintaining such a supply of 
moisture that the tree receives no check at the approach of drouth. But 
the fruit grown on soils so heavy lacks clearness of skin, and the appear- 
ance is marred by the greenish look extending far up the sides from the 
blossom end and by the lack of well-developed color which makes this fruit, 
at its best, very attractive. Hence the problem is to balance these two 
opposite tendencies as well as possible, and soil of the following description 
seems best adapted to this: Light, mellow loam, the sand content thereof 
being medium rather than fine, thus constituting an open-textured loam 
rather than a fine loam. The subsoil should be of the same texture or only 
slightly heavier, in no case being heavier than a very light, plastic clay 
loam. The soil must be brought to a productive condition. Subsoils in- 
clining toward stiffness in texture should be carefully avoided. 

" Fall Pippin. — Soils adapted to the Fall Pippin are somewhat wider 
in range than those described for Northern Spy and Tompkins King. In 
fact, this variety may be very successfully grown on the soils described 
for the Tompkins King and Northern Spy. It is preferable, however, that 
the surface soil be a fine loam rather than the open-textured loam de- 
scribed for the Tompkins King. 

" Grimes Golden Soils. — The Grimes Golden is not well adapted, it 
Is believed, to New England and most of New York, and it is only men- 



GRAVENSTEIN SOILS 21 

tioned here to show its soil relationship to other varieties. It is so 
similar in soil adaptation to the ' green ' Rhode Island Greening that a 
separate description of the soils best for this variety is not given. The 
Grimes has been so profitable in some districts of western Maryland, 
Virginia, southeastern Pennsylvania, and Ohio under certain conditions 
of soil and climate, however, that its desirability for general planting has 
been widely heralded; and as a result this variety is now being planted 
in some sections with too little discrimination with reference to both soil 
and climate. The best general guide is to plant Grimes in the eastern 
States, where the Rhode Island Greening tends to become a fall apple. 
The Rhode Island Greening soil located far enough south for that variety 
to be undesirable for extensive planting is well adapted to, and may well 
be utilized for the Grimes. It should never be planted on a light or thin 
soil, neither on a stiff soil. The tree maintains its best growth on a well- 
drained, productive, moist soil, and under such conditions is a very 
desirable variety in its region. 

" Rome Beauty Soils. — The Rome Beauty bears the same relation to 
the Grimes Golden in soil requirements as Baldwin does to the ' green ' 
Rhode Island Greening in their respective regions. There is, however, 
something of an overlapping of regions. That is, the Baldwin succeeds 
further south than the Ehode Island Greening, and the Rome Beauty 
extends as far north as the Grimes; but this intraregional overlapping 
of the Rome Beauty and the Baldwin is largely a matter of dove-tailing, 
due to variations in elevation. Thus, in southern Pennsylvania, as the 
Baldwin in its southerly extension seeks higher elevations to offset the 
climatic change, so does the Rome Beauty in its northern extension seek the 
same soil at a lower elevation for the same reason. The Baldwin tends to 
become a fall variety with increasing distance south, and where this 
tendency is sufficiently pronounced to lessen materially its desirability it 
may well be replaced by the Rome Beauty, which is adapted to the same 
kind of soil. The Rome Beauty is grown with fairly good success in the 
lower Hudson Valley and at low elevations in Western New York, but 
there is some question whether it will become a leading commercial sort 
in either region. 

" Gravenstein Soils. — The Gravenstein has given growers much 
trouble, but its general excellence, the high price the fruit brings, and the 
strong demand for it in some markets make it a tempting sort to plant. Its 
susceptibility to winter injury, however, is often a serious matter. There is 
good evidence to show that the Gravenstein should not be forced in growth, 
at least until it is iifteen years old or older. On rich, moist ground or with 
heavy fertilization with nitrogenous manures, its growth is rarely matured 
early enougli in the season to avoid more or less winter injury. It con- 
tinues to grow until freezing weather, and thus is very susceptible to 
injury. On a medium soil, neither too rich nor too moist, its growth 



22 ORCHARD LANDS 

may better be held in control, early annual maturity may be forced, and the 
color of the fruit is satisfactory. The subsoil should never be so clayey 
as to prevent ready downward percolation of any excess of free soil water. 
Annual applications of the mineral fertilizers, such as basic slag and 
potash, seem desirable on such soils, and a moderate amount of humus 
should be furnished, but nitrogenous fertilizers should be used sparingly. 
Fruit of good color is especially desirable with this variety, the color 
adding materially to the selling price. This has led to its being planted 
on thin or light, sandy soils in some cases, but on such land the Graven- 
stein is, on the whole, unsatisfactory. This is a variety for the specialist, 
and for such it is a very profitable sort when grown near a market — espe- 
cially if within driving distance. 

" Roxbury Russet Soils. — The Roxbury Russet is now seldom planted, 
but there are some commercial orchards of it in New England and New 
York, and many old orchards contain a few trees. The Roxbury Russet 
is a gross feeder, utilizing to advantage heavier applications of stable 
manure than almost any other variety. A deep, rich, loamy soil, with the 
upper subsoil of at least medium porosity, such as a fine, sandy loam or a 
gravelly, sandy loam, seems to be essential, though a heavier subsoil at a 
depth of four to six feet is not objectionable. It thrives on a much richer 
soil than the Baldwin, which does not color well on the best Russet soils. 
The ' green ' Rhode Island Greening soil, on the other hand, is somewhat 
too clayey for the Roxbury Russet. Grown on the soil conditions described, 
the Roxbury tree is prolific, the fruit attains large size and good quality, 
its keeping characteristics are excellent and it brings a good price, espe- 
cially for export trade. 

" A study of the cropping systems practised in this country indicates 
that many of our important crops have reached their highest development 
on certain kinds of soil, and in the light of this experience it seems 
inevitable to conclude that soils may be selected for different crops in 
accordance with their relative adaptedness to the growth of such crops. 
In fact, there is nothing new or startling in this statement. It is simply 
summing up a long line of experience in the best farm practice of the 
country. It is only the best farm practice, the most perfect soil adaptation 
and the most effective soil crop management that can long survive, because 
no other kinds pay as well. We have been forced by competition to 
recognize soil adaptedness to different crops. It is a matter of economic 
efficiency. 

'■ Attention has been called to the further fact that within the 
climatic zone favorable to certain varieties of some crops the best results 
have been obtained on certain definite soil conditions, and this is espe- 
cially well illustrated by ditt'erent varieties of apples. Little more than 
a beginning has been made in this line of work, and it will take time 
to solve the various problems relating to it, but it is already one of the 
promising fields for further investigation." 



QUESTIONS 23 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the main points to be considered in choosing an orchard site. 

2. Give five characteristics of the surface soil. 

3. What are the best subsoils for orchards? 

4. Why is surface drainage needed? 

5. Discuss the danger in having too much slope. 

6. What are the advantages of having atmospheric drainage ? 

7. What are considered the best aspects or slopes? 

8. What are the advantages of windbreaks for orchards? 

9. What kinds of windbreaks are best for orchards? 

10. Discuss the location of windbreaks. 

11. What are some soil conditions that are unfavorable for apples? 

12. What soils are best for Baldwin apples? 

13. Discuss soils for Greenings. 

14. Discuss Hubbardston soils. 

15. What soils are best for Northern Spy apples? 

16. What are the best soils for Tompkins King? 

17. On what soils does Grimes Golden do best? 

18. What are the special soil requirements of Rome Beauty? 

19. On what soils does the Gravenstein succeed best? 

20. Discuss soils best suited to the Roxbury Russet. 



CHAPTEE III 

SELECTING VARIETIES AND BUYING NURSERY 

STOCK 

Having selected the orchard site with due regard (so far as 
circumstances will allow) for the principles laid down in the 
preceding chapter, the next matter for consideration is what 
varieties shall be selected and where the stock shall be purchased. 
In fact, the orchardist has probably considered both of these 
questions, but especially the former, long before he decided on 
the site for his orchard, perhaps even before he bought the farm. 

Let us first attack the difficult question of varieties. A 
common and a very convenient way of eluding this question 
when asked for advice is to say that " it is a personal matter." 
To a certain extent it is, but to a much greater extent there are 
certain fairly definite considerations that apply to every case. 
The writer favors the use of score cards, one of which has already 
been submitted. He has therefore attempted to reduce the 
principal desirable qualities of a market apple to this basis and 
to attach certain definite values to each quality. There are two 
scores, in fact ; one for the general or wholesale market and the 
other for the special or retail market. In the latter it is sup- 
posed that the grower comes in direct or nearly direct contact 
with the consumer, while in the former he sells to a buyer at the 
orchard or to a commission man. 

Score Card for a Commericial Variety of Apple 

General Market Special Market 

Tree 40 35 

1. Heavy bearer 20 ir> 

2. Early bearer 10 10 

3. Health and vigor 10 10 

Fruit 60 65 

4. Fair size 10 10 

5. Good color 20 15 

6. Good quality 12 25 

7. Keeps well 10 10 

8. Ships well 8 5 

Totals 100 100 100 100 

24 



EARLY BEARER 25 

I. Heavy Bearer. — This might seem to need no discussion. 
If one does not get the fruit there is little point in having the 
orchard. And yet there is no question that it is a point fre- 
quently overlooked by men who plant orchards. The estimate 
of the variety is too often made from the fruit alone. If the 
fruit is handsome and of good quality (or frequently if it is 
merely handsome), it is assumed to be a good variety to grow. 
Usually this type of mistake is an individual matter but it fre- 
quently becomes almost a community matter. For example, 
about 1897 the Golden Russet apple had been bringing very high 
prices in the English markets and many orchard owners in the 
Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia (where apples are grown princi- 
pally for the English markets), hearing of the fine prices re- 
ceived per barrel by their neighbors, grafted over a large number 
of trees to this variety. It was only when the grafts came into 
bearing that they realized there was an important difference 
between the income per barrel and per tree. The emphasis on 
prolific bearing is made slightly more emphatic in the case of 
apples grown for the general markets than for those grown for 
the special markets, because the margin of profit is greater where 
one has a special market and his customers will pay a larger 
premium for good quality, so that he can afford to grow slightly 
less prolific varieties provided they are exceptionally good. A 
man might, for example, grow the Mother apple, which is rather 
a shy bearer, for a special market, but would never think of 
doing so for the general market. 

2. Early Bearer. — This has been given equal importance in 
both score cards because it seemed probable that early returns 
would be as desirable to one type of grower as the other. And 
yet there may be varieties which one would be justified in wait- 
ing for in the special orchard because of their extra quality, 
when he would not be in the general orchard. The Spy, for 
example, is proverbially slow in coming into bearing, but if one 
has a special market that will pay him $10 a barrel for them he 
would be justified in setting them out, but he would not be if 
he had to sell them in a general market for $2 or $3 a barrel. 
In any case early bearing is a very desirable quality and de- 
serves emphasis. Orcharding is a sufficiently long-time invest- 



26 VARIETIES AND NURSERY STOCK 

ment at best 'to be rather discouraging, and should not be made 
more so by deferred crops. It is certainly a point worth con- 
sidering, whether one is to get a crop in five or six years as may 
happen with Oldenburg or Wagener, or must wait ten or even 
fifteen years, as frequently happens with the Northern Spy 
(Fig. 6). 

3, Health and Vigor. — ^Diseases are among the most serious 
handicaps of the orchard. And there is frequently a very 




Fig 6. — Northern Spy apple. One of the finest varieties and, where it will grow well, 
a profitable sort. Its principal failing is that it is exceptionally slow coming into bearing. 

marked difference in the susceptibility of different varieties to 
different diseases. If one is in a section where apple scab is espe- 
cially troublesome, then it might be better to rule out Rhode 
Island Greening and Mcintosh altogether, because they are 
notoriously affected by that disease. But if fire blight is the 
special enemy, then Mcintosh would be one of the best sorts to 
set, since it seems to be particularly resistant to the blight. In 
any case, whether one decides to set the variety under discussion 



GOOD COLOR 27 

or not, it is very desirable that he should know its weaknesses 
and give them due consideration. And a variety is certainly 
distinctly more valuable the more free it is from all of these 
troubles. One would discount for susceptibility to all diseases 
such as scab, blight, and canker; and for being a poor grower, 
like the Wagener apple; or for being specially liable to over- 
growing, and consequent winter-killing, as is the case with the 
Tompkins King and the G-ravenstein apples. 

4. Fair Size of Fruit. — It w^as quite a question whether this 
should not receive more weight in the general market than in the 
special, for one certainly might grow the Pomme Grise or the 
Lady Apple for a special market, while he would not as a rule 
think of growing either for the general market. But on the 
other hand one usually sees apples in the fruit stores (and high 
class stores at that) selling at prices which range directly as the 
size of the fruit. 

If any one disagrees with the values given this point in the 
score card he has the writer's permission to change them, pro- 
vided he can decide where the extra value taken from '^ size " 
in the special market shall be placed. 

5. Good Color is practically synonjTnous with '^ red color." 
Whatever we may say about it, however strongly we may con- 
demn people for '' eating with their eyes," there is not the 
slightest question that they do prefer a bright red apple, and 
they probably always will ; that is, the general public will. And 
since the man who grows fruit is bound sooner or later, and to a 
greater or less degree, to be dependent on the general public 
for his market, on people whose tastes have never been educated 
up to the high standard that they should be, it is worth while to 
give color due weight. Even for the special market it is easier 
to sell a beautiful red apple. But where one is coming into 
direct, personal contact with his customers, as he does in the 
special market, he can push an apple of fine quality, like a 
Palmer Greening, even though it is not red. And the more con- 
fidence his customers have in his opinion, and the finer the 
quality of his variety is, the more he can afford to disregard red 
color. But in the general market it is far different. Only the 



28 



VARIETIES AND NURSERY STOCK 



oldest standbys, like Rhode Island Greening, have any place in 
that market, unless they are red, and even these standbys are at 
a certain disadvantage on account of their color. Of course there 
is also a difference in the attractiveness of yellow varieties, and 
this ought to be given due weight. One is a fine, waxy color, such 
as a Grimes Golden or an Ortley, while another is dull and un- 
interesting, as a Mann. 

6. Good Quality. — This is a point which the writer likes to 
give special emphasis. It is astonishing what an influence quality 
has in the demand for apples, or any other fruit, for that matter. 

Give a man a really fine 
^'^l^far- apple and he wants some 

more at once, and inciden- 
tally he is not so particular 
just what he pays for it. 
But give him one that is in- 
different or poor in quality, 
and he does not care just 
how long he has to wait for 
the next. 

One winter the writer 
began on some Baldwin 
apples, some particularly 
fine Baldwin apples grown 
in western Massachusetts. 
It was the custom each evening to bring up a plate of them for the 
family circle. It usually required two apples in his own particu- 
lar case to satisfy the ' ' demand. ' ' Later in the season, after these 
Baldwins were used up some rather indifferent apples of various 
varieties were brought forward. They were good sound apples, 
and well preserved, of such sorts as Rome Beauty and locally 
grown Stayman Winesap, but they were not of particularly high 
quality. It was certainly astonishing to see what a change took 
place in the attitude of the family toward the evening apple 
feast. The custom was still kept up and with fair regularity, but 
nobody felt very badly if it happened to be omitted, and it was 
nothing uncommon to have a part of an apple (and a good big 




Fig. 7. — A Baldwin apple. Probably more 
people know and like the Baldwin than any other 

variety. 



FRUIT THAT KEEPS \fELL 29 

part sometimes) left on a plate — something which never 
happened with the Baldwins (Fig. 7). Now this is exactly what 
will take place in practically any household under similar cir- 
cumstances. Multiply this case by twenty million to learn the 
influence of quality on the consumption of apples in the United 
States. Probably not all households would be cpiite as particular 
about quality, but some would be more so. Given choice fruit, 
and a family will easily use ten barrels in a year. Furnish them 
with Ben Davis and they can get along with one barrel and not 
feel the loss, at least not the reduction. There are various and 
diverse reasons given for growing the varieties of low quality, 
such as the Ben Davis apple. " It is a good tree," " it bears 
large crops," '' it has fine color and most people go by the eye 
anyhow," and lastly and worst of all, '' it really isn't so bad in 
quality and a slight lowering of the quality doesn't make much 
difference in consumption." Now the writer wants to hasten to 
say that he appreciates fully the importance of good tree char- 
acteristics. But we must have quality also if we are going to 
increase the consumption of fruit. Nothing, in the writer's 
opinion, would so safeguard us against that day, so freely 
prophesied, when fruit is to become a drug in the market, as 
to grow nothing but varieties of reasonably high quality. 

7. Fruit that Keeps Well. — This point is of far less im- 
portance since methods of storage have been so much improved. 
One can afford to grow the poorer keeping varieties because they 
can be forced to keep in the refrigerated storage. There is cer- 
tainly not the importance to very late keeping that used to 
attach to such varieties as Roxbury Eusset and Northern Spy, 
which would hold on till other varieties were out of the way and 
would then command fine prices. On the other hand, good keep- 
ing is still a very important characteristic, because it assists the 
storage plant in preserving the fruit in good condition. When 
the fruit is removed from storage the good keeper will " stand 
up " long after the poor keeper has gone to pieces. Moreover, 
one variety may hold its color and attractiveness much longer 
than another. The Gravenstein apple, for example, will fade 



30 VARIETIES AND NURSERY STOCK 

and change to a dull, unattractive red rather quickly, while the 
Mcintosh will hold its bright, handsome color almost indefinitely. 

8. Ships Well. — This is imperative in the general market at 
present, but is less important in the special market because we 
often wrap apples for that market and put them in smaller pack- 
ages and do various other things to make them carry better. The 
relative importance of this point is also likely to decline in both 
general and special markets as we still further improve on our 
methods of handling and transporting our fruit. When ex- 
pressmen are no longer allowed to handle boxes of apples as 
they would pig iron it will not be so important that the fruit 
should '' stand up well." 

So much for the qualities of varieties as shown in the score 
card. 

Number of Varieties. — Another question of great impor- 
tance is how many varieties to set. The usual recommendation 
on this point is not to set many, to keep the number down to 
two or three, or four at the outside. In general, this is prob- 
ably good advice. There is no question but that most men who 
set out orchards of any kind find, when the trees come into 
bearing, that they have some varieties that they wish they 
had not planted. That is almost inevitable if one branches out 
at all. Usually the more enthusiastic and inexperienced a man 
is the more varieties he will set. Enthusiasm plays a very 
important part in this choice of varieties. A cold and calculat- 
ing attitude is probably the proper one to take. Then it is usually 
possible to keep the number down where it belongs. But as soon 
as most men begin to get really interested, they find one variety 
after another that they think they must try, until the list soon 
reaches undue proportions. One grower confessed to the writer 
privately that his first order of apple trees contained ninety- 
three varieties; and that he would have bought more but that 
was all the nurseryman carried! A fatal mistake so far as 
profit is concerned and yet one for which the writer confesses 
a great deal of lenience. 

The proper ivay to do is to separate absolutely the commercial 
and the experimental ventures : In the former put only those 



SELF-STERILE VARIETIES 31 

varieties which have proved their right to be considered money- 
makers, and set in the latter a tree, or a graft even, of everything 
that seems interesting and promising. Even this latter would 
be sternly repressed by some authorities. But if one is to get the 
fun out of the fruit business that he ought, it is certainly 
allowable to have an experimental corner. 

Type of Market Influences Number. — In the commercial 
orchard the question of number of varieties hinges very largely 
on the type of market to which the owner wishes to cater. If he 
is growing fruit, especially apples, for the general or wholesale 
market then he wants relatively few sorts. With apples he might 
even restrict his plantings to two or three varieties. Such a 
grower expects to sell either through a commission man or to a 
buyer in the orchard, and in either case he is much more likely 
to make a satisfactory sale if he has one hundred barrels of 
one variety than if he has only ten barrels each of ten sorts. 

If he has a good special or retail market then it seems 
entirely legitimate to set as many as ten or a dozen varieties. 
In the case of apples, for example, he wants a succession of 
varieties from the very earliest to the very latest. He does not 
want to work up a trade on his Yellow Transparents and Wil- 
liams but lose it when Gravenstein and Mcintosh are in season 
and have to work it up again for his Baldwins. More than that, 
it is a good plan to have two or even three varieties available 
at any one time so as to give customers a choice of several sorts. 
One person may prefer AVageners while another one wants Kings 
and a third is satisfied only with Palmer Greenings. This is a 
doctrine which it is easy to carry too far, but, if kept within 
bounds, it is a rational business policy. 

Self-sterile Varieties. — A point which should not be over- 
looked in any orchard is the fact that many varieties are more or 
less self-sterile, as it is called. That is, they will not bear fruit 
unless the blossoms are *' fertilized " with pollen from some 
other variety. There are various reasons for this failure to 
produce fruit when planted alone. Sometimes it is due to de- 
fective stamens which do not produce normal pollen; in other 
cases the stamens do not mature their pollen when the pistils in 



32 VARIETIES AND NURSERY STOCK 

tJie same blossoms are in receptive condition ; while in still others, 
though everything appears to be normal, the pollen is impotent 
and will not fertilize its own pistils. A great many different 
factors may influence this matter of self -sterility, such as locality, 
weather, vigor of the tree and other influences; so no one can 
mal^e hard and fast lists of self-sterile and self -fertile varieties. 

Whatever the cause of self -sterility, it necessitates the mixing 
of varieties in the orchard. Even those varieties which are not 
strictly self-sterile, which may even bear good crops when planted 
alone, will frequently bear much better crops if there are several 
other sorts planted with them. This is why the family orchard 
usually bears abundantly while solid blocks of one sort, even a 
self- fertile sort, may not do so well. Even the man who is grow- 
ing for the general market will do well to set at least two and 
preferably three varieties. 

Varieties Suited to the Section. — Another point of the 
utmost importance is to stick to those varieties which are kno^vn 
to do well in the section, at least for the commercial plantings. 
Important as this is, it is constantly overlooked by orchardists, 
particularly by those who are new at the business. Just at the 
present time the apple business of the East gives an exceptionally 
good illustration of this point. There is much interest in grow- 
ing apples all through the northeastern United States. Men have 
heard of the money that the western apple growers are making 
and they want to do likewise. They can not go into any city or 
town without seeing quantities of the fine western apples on sale. 
Being interested in varieties they naturally study those on sale 
and they say at once — '' Here, these are the varieties I want to 
grow ! I do not want to plant Baldwins and Rhode Island Green- 
ings as my neighbors do, but I want to grow Ortleys and Staymen 
Winesaps and King David and Delicious. ' ^ Especially Delicious ! 
There is something in the very name that infatuates the novice. 
He thinks it must be as good as it sounds and he wants to grow 
some at once, without reflecting that it is a new variety at best, 
and has never been tested in the East at all, and we can not 
tell for ten years to come whether or not it is a legitimate com- 
mercial variety for the section. These new sorts may have 



VARIETIES SUITED TO THE SECTION 33 

a place in the experimental end of the orchard just alluded to, 
but they certainly do not have a place in the commercial orchard 
and many of them probably never will. And the western and 
southern varieties ought not to be grown in the North, neither 
ought the northern varieties to be grown in the South. 

This question of what varieties of apples are adapted to each 
section has been carefully studied by Dr. J. K. Shaw, of the 
Massachusetts Experiment Station, who has reached very in- 
teresting conclusions on the subject that are quoted here. After 
discussing the influence of soil, culture and climate on the apples, 
Dr. Shaw says: 

" It is evident from the foregoing discussion that the development of 
the highest perfection in any given variety is closely related to most favor- 
able mean summer temperatures. In Table I is given a list of varieties, with 
an estimate of the optimum temperature for each sort, and in some cases 
of their possible range and hardiness with respect to the cold of winter. 
The list of varieties includes all those that are given the double star, in- 
dicating highly successful varieties, in the list of the American Pomological 
Society, with a number of additions of varieties that, for various reasons, 
seemed worthy of consideration. Inasmuch as we consider keeping quality 
of considerable account with most sorts, the policy has been to prescribe 
about as low a temperature as will suffice to thoroughly mature a variety, 
leaving a margin of about 2° for seasonal fluctuations; that is, we believe 
that any variety may be matured when the summer mean is 2° lower than 
the one given. This applies more particularly to the fall and winter 
varieties. 

" We believe, on the other hand, that any increase in the summer mean 
for any variety, unless it be the earliest ones, will be a disadvantage, though 
a very slight one, if the rise is not more than 1° or 2°. Up to a certain 
degree the over-maturity of the fruit in a too warm climate may be over- 
come if the grower will pick at the time of full maturity and put the fruit 
at once in cold storage. If the heat is too great, however, even with this 
method they will be inferior in flavor and color, and, in very extreme cases, 
in size. We believe that a departure of more than 2° in either direction 
from the temperatures given will be a noticeable disadvantage with any of 
the winter varieties. This remark will apply less to the fall sorts and 
still less to the summer varieties; or, to put it in other words, the earlier 
the variety the greater may be its range of temperature without marked 
deterioration of the fruit. 

" There are doubtless errors in the case of some varieties, concerning 
which we have limited information. It is hoped that these may, in time, 
3 



34 



VARIETIES AND NURSERY STOCK 



be corrected, as we are able to learn more concerning the behavior of these 
varieties under different conditions. 

" In Table II these same varieties are grouped under their optimum 
temperatures for convenience in reference. 

" In Table I there is also given for some varieties the range of tempera- 
ture which they can stand without serious deterioration. This is, as 
already stated, closely connected with the season of the variety, being wide 
with early sorts and relatively narrow with most winter sorts. Just how 
mucli difference there is between the ranges of varieties of the same season 
is difficult to say. It is complicated with a variety of related questions. 

" In the case of a few of the varieties given in Table I an attempt is 
made to give their hardiness with respect to the winter cold. Inasmuch 
as the ability of the tree to withstand cold depends on a variety of factors 
other than the temperature, it is of no use to attempt to state this in degrees. 
The designation Ex. H. is used for the varieties equal in hardiness to tho>e 
classified as of the first degree of hardiness (by the Minnesota Horticul- 
tural Society) ; and the designation H., M. and T. for various degrees of 
hardiness below these two classes. Many of the more southern sorts are 
not grown far enough north on account of a lack of summer heat to test 
their winter hardiness in a satisfactory manner. Therefore it is impossible 
to make any statements regarding them, nor would there be any practical 
value in such statements were they possible." 

Table I. — Mean Summer Temperatures. 

(Dr. J. K. Shaw) 





4) 








i 








ft^ 
















f.',i 








ti ",i 
















(D S 








HS 








^^^ 








§0 




(U 




SQ 




0) 




^2 


03 


.2 




e?^ 


a 


9 




















ai 


1 






a5 


03 






O 


Ph 


ffl 




O 


tf 


ffi 


Akin 


52 






Bismarck. . . . 


53 






Alexander . . . 


54 




H. 


Black Gilli- 








Arctic 


53 




H. 


fiower 


55 






Arkansas .... 


65 






Blenheim. . . . 


55 






Arkansas 








Blue Pear- 








Black 


63 






mam 


54 




H. 


Babbit 


57 






Boiken 


57 






Bailey Sweet 


58 






Bonum 


65 






Baldwin 


56 


N. 


M. 


Borovinka. . . 


53 






Baxter 


53 




H. 


Bough 


57 






Beach 


65 






Buckingham . 


66 






Ben Davis, . . 


64 


M. 


H. 


Buncombe. . . 


66 






Benoni 


59 






Cabashea 


58 






Bethel 


53 




H. 


Cannon Pear- 








Bietigheimer. 


53 






mam 


65 







♦The average of the mean monthly temperatures for March to September inclusive. 



VARIETIES SUITED TO THE SECTION 
Table I. — Mean Summer Temperatures — Continued. 



35 



Charlamoff . . 

Chenango . . . 

Collins 

Cooper Mar- 
ket 

Cox Orange. . 

Delicious. . . . 

Dominie 

Dudley 

Early Har- 
vest 

Early Joe. . . . 

Early Pen- 
nock 

Early Straw- 
berry 

English Rus- 
set 

Esopus 

Ewalt 

Fallawater. . . 

Fall Harvey. . 

Fall Orange. . 

Fall Pippin . . 

Fameuse .... 

Fanny 

Flushing 
Spitzenburg 

Foundling . . . 

Gano 

Gideon 

Golden Rus- 
set 

Golden Sweet 

Gravenstein 

Green Sweet 

Grimes 

Haas 

Hagloe 

Hibernal .... 

Holland Pip- 
pin 

Holland 
Winter. . . . 



a-. 

S S 

O 



53 
57 
65 

60 
35 
59 
60 
53 

56 
56 

56 

58 

56 
59 

58 
60 
57 
57 
58 
54 
63 

58 
54 
64 
54 

56 
58 
55 
58 
62 
59 
60 
52 

57 

57 



V. W. 



N. 



M. 



M. 



Ex. H. 



H. 

H. 
H. 



Horse 

Hubbards- 
ton 

Huntsman . . 

Hyde King , 

Ingraham . . . 

Jefferis 

Jewett 

Jonathan . . . 

July 

Kent Beauty 

Keswick . . . . 

King David . 

Kinnarid .. . . 

Lady 

Lady Sweet . 

Lankford . . . 

Lawver 

Limbertwig 

Longfield . . . 

Lowell 

Lowland 
Raspberry. 

Maiden 
Blush 

Mahnda 

Mann 

McAfee 

Mcintosh . . . 

McMahon . . 

Melon 

Milden 

Milwaukee . . 

Minkler . . . . 

Missouri 
Pippin . . . . 

Monmouth .. 

Mother 

Newell . . . . . 

Newtown 
Spitzen- 
burg 

Northern 
Spy 



So 
O 



55 
60 
56 
55 
57 
58 
54 
60 

64 
57 

58 
55 



60 
56 



N. 



N. 



66 

57 
62 
60 
62 
57 
54 
59 
59 
58 
58 
59 
59 
58 
57 
61 
64 
66 
57 
58 

58 



61 M. 

54 i N. 



N. 



N. 



M. 



W. 



V. H. 
H. 

H. 
H. 



H. 
H. 



M. 



H. 



36 VARIETIES AND NURSERY STOCK 

Table I. — Mean Summer Temperatures — Continued. 



Northwest- 
ern Green- 



ing ... . 
Okabena . 
Oldenburg 
Oliver . . . 
Ontario . . 
Ortley . . . 
Paragon. . 
Patten . . . 

Payne 

Peck Pleasant 

Peerless 

Pewaukee . . . 
Plumb Cider 
Pomnie Grise 

Porter 

Primate 

Pumpkin 

Sweet 

Ralls 

Rambo 

Red Astra- 

chan 

Red Canada . 
Red June. . . . 
Rhode Island 

Greening . . 

Ribston 

Rolf e 

Roman Stem. 
Rome Beauty 
R o xb u r y 

Russet . . . 

Salome 

Scott Winter 
Shiawasse . . 
Shockley ... 
Smith Cider. 
Smokehouse 

Stark 

S t a y m a n 

Winesap. . 
St. Lawrence 



0.^ 

StD 

o a; 
So 

o 



55 
52 
52 
64 
56 
61 
64 
55 
62 
58 
56 
53 
57 
55 
57 
57 

57 
62 
60 

54 
59 

58 

56 
55 
56 
61 
60 

57 
55 
55 
55 
65 
61 
60 
62 

63 
54 



V. W. 



Ex. H. 



V. H. 
V. H. 



W. 



N. 



M. 



V. H. 
Ex. H. 
Ex. H. 

H. 



Ex. H. 



V. H. 
V. H. 



H. 



H. 



H. 
H. 

V. H. 
H. 



H. 



Sutton .... 

Swarr 

Swazie . . . 

Switzer . . . 

Terry .... 

Tetofski.. . 

Titovka . . 

Tolman . . . 

Tompkins 
King 

Twenty 
Ounce 

Twenty 
Ounce Pip- 
pin 

Wagener .... 

Walbridge . . . 

Washington 
Royal. .... 

Wealthy 

Westfield . . . 

White Astra- 
chan 

White Pear- 
main 

White Pip- 
pin 

Williams .... 

Willow 

Windsor .... 

Winesap .... 

Winter Ba- 
nana 

Wolf River . . 

Yates 

Yellow Bell- 
flower 

Yellow New- 
town 

Yellow 
Trans- 
parent .... 

York Impe- 
rial 



M 












a^ 




ss 








Hfr„ 








M 






a 3 


o3 


O*^ 


« 



56 
58 
55 
58 
67 
53 
56 
56 

56 

58 

58 
59 
54 

56 
56 
56 

54 

62 

61 
57 
64 
55 
64 

58 
54 
67 

61 

60 

53 
62 



N. 

N. 
V. W. 

M. " 

M. 



W. 



W. 

M." 

M. 

W. 

V. N. 

W. 
M. 



V. H. 

H. 

H. 

M. 

M. 



H. 
V. H. 



H. 



V. H. 



V. H. 



VARIETIES SUITED TO THE SECTION 



37 



Table II. — Optimum Temperatures by Groups. 





(Dr. J, 


, K. Shaw) 




Fifty-two Degrees. 


Fifty-three Degrees. Fifty-four Degrees. 


Fifty-Jive Degrees. 


Hibernal 


Arctic 


Alexander 


Black Gilliflower 


Okabena 


Baxter 


Blue Pearmain 


Blenheim 


Oldenburg 


Bethel 


Fameuse 


Cox Orange 




Bietigheimer 


Foundling 


Gravenstein 




Bismarck 


Gideon 


Mann 




Borovinka 


Jewett 


McMahon 




Charlamoff 


Malinda 


Newell 




Dudley 


Milwaukee 


Northwestern 
Greening 




Pewaukee 


Red Astrachan 


Patten 




Teofski 


St. Lawrence 


Pomme Grise 




Yellow Transpar- 
ent 


■ Walbridge 


Ribston 




White Astrachan 


Salome 






Wolf River 


Scott Winter 
Shiawasse 
Swazie 
Windsor 


Fifty-six Degrees. 


Fifty-seven Degrees 


Fifty-eight Degrees 


Fiftij-nine Degrees. 


Baldwin 


Babbit 


Bailey Sweet 


Benoni 


Early Harvest 


Boiken 


Cabashea 


Delicious 


Early Pennock 


Bough 


Early Joe 


Esopus 


English Russet 


Chenango 


Early Strawberry 


Haas 


Golden Russet 


Fall Harvey 


Ewalt 


Jonathan 


Lowland Rasp- 
berry 
Mcintosh 


Fall Orange 


Fall Pippin 


July 


Holland Pippin 


Flushing Spitzen- 

burg 
Golden Sweet 


■ King David 


Milden 


Holland Winter 


Kinnaird 


Northern Spy 


Hubbardston 


Green Sweet 


Red Canada 


Ontario 


Jefferis 


Kent Beauty 


Wagener 


Peerless 


Lady Sweet 


Keswick 




Rhode Island Longfield 


Lady 




Greening 








Rolfe 


Melon 


Lowell 




Sutton 


Monmouth 


Mother 




Titovka 


Plumb Cider 


Peck Pleasant 




Tolman 


Porter 


Red June 




Tompkins King 


Primate 


Swarr 




Washington Royal Roxbury Russet 


Sv/itzer 




Wealthy 


Williams 


Twenty Ounce 




Westfield 




Twenty Ounce 

Pippin 
Winter Banana 




Sixty Degrees. 


Sixty-one Degrees. 


Sixty-two Degrees. 


Sixty-three Degrees, 


Cooper Market 


Lankford 


Akin 


Arkansas Black 


Dominie 


Maiden Blush 


Grimes 


Fanny 


Fallawater 


Ortley 


Huntsman 


Stayman Winesap 


Hagloe 


Roman Stem 


Ingram 




Hyde King 


Smith Cider 


Payne 





38 



VARIETIES AND NURSERY STOCK 



Table II. — Optimum Temperatures by Groups — Continued. 



Sixty Degrees. 

McAffee 
M inkier 
Newton Spitzen- 

burg 
Rambo 
Rome Beauty 
Smokehouse 
Yellow Newtown 



Sixty-one Degrees 

White Pippin 

Yellow Bellflower Stark 



Sixty-two Degrees. Sixty-three Degrees^ 
Ralls 



White Pearmain 
York Imperial 



Sixty-five Degrees. Sixty-six Degrees. Sixty-seven Degrees. 

Arkansas Buckingham Terry 

Beach Buncombe Yates 

Bonum Horse 

Cannon Pearmain Limbertwig 

Colhns Shockley 



Sixty-four 

Ben Davis 

Gano 

Lawyer 

Missouri Pippin 

Oliver 

Paragon 

Willowtwig 

Winesap 



Choose Popular Varieties. — The grower should also choose 
popular varieties and in pcirticular select sorts that are suited 
to the market or markets to which he expects to ship his fruit. 
Probably more people are partial to the Baldwin than to any- 
other one variety. Wismer's Dessert may be a better apple, but 
so few people know it that the orchard man can sell a thousand 
barrels of Baldwins to one of Wismer's Dessert. And some 
markets are especially partial to certain varieties while other 
markets will not handle them at all. Chicag-o, for example, wants 
the Yellow Bellflower and will pay fine prices for it, while Boston 
and New York do not want it at all (Fig. 8). There are growers 
in Maine who make a specialty of growing the Bellflower for 
Chicago and secure high prices, but if they disregarded this 
point and shipped to their nearest large market, Boston, they 
might make little or nothing. 

Buying the Stock. — Having settled on the varieties, the next 
thing is to buy the stock. Here are some of the points to be 
considered under this head: (1) Southern-grown vs. northern- 
grown stock; (2) age of trees that is best; (3) size or grade that 
is best; (4) price to pay. 



SOUTHERN-GROWN VS. NORTHERN-GROWN STOCK 39 

Southern-grown vs. Northern-grown Stock. — On the first 
point it is a very common notion, among onr northern orchard 
men at least, that northern-grown, and especially locally grown 
stock is best. This seems like a very reasonable proposition, 
theoreticall}^ If a nursery tree has been grown in the same or a 
similar climate to that of the orchard it ought to develop into a 
better orchard tree than a nursery tree grown elsewhere, and 
particularly than a tree grown in the milder climate of a more 




Fig. 8. — Yellow Bellflower apple. An old favorite with many people, especially popular on 

the Chicago market. 

southern section. If that is not sound reasoning there never was 
any. And yet in actual practice it does not work out that way. 
The writer has seen nursery trees which had been grown in New 
York, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Maryland set out side by side in 
Nova Scotia orchards and whatever difference there was in their 
growth was in favor of the more southern trees. He has also seen 
trees from New York and Maryland nurseries growing side by 
side in Massachusetts orchards and the southern trees giving 
fully as good an account of themselves as the northern trees. 



40 VARIETIES AND NURSERY STOCK 

There are certain advantages for really local trees, such as 
less freight to pay, less drying out of trees in transit, and per- 
haps the nurseryman feeling his responsibility more if the 
customer can call him up by 'phone or drop in and see him per- 
sonally. But the argument of '* acclimated nursery stock " has 
certainly been overworked. Apparently the tree has the ability 
during the first growing season to entirely adapt itself to the 
new surroundings. It has not grown long enough in the milder 
climate to make any permanent change in its life processes. But 
whatever the scientific explanation may be, the writer is 
thoroughly convinced of the fact that it makes little or no differ- 
ence where the tree was grown so far as climatic conditions are 
concerned. What does make a difference is having good, thrifty 
stock in good, fresh condition when set. 

Age of Trees. — On the second point, age of trees that is best, 
there seems to be quite a ditference of opinion, the ideal of differ- 
ent men ranging from one to three or even more years. Very 
few men, however, want a tree over two years old. It is chiefly 
a question of one year or two year trees. Personally the writer 
is rather strongly in favor of the one year tree, when soil con- 
ditions are good, for the following reasons: 

(a) It costs less. Out of a long list of nurserymen whose 
prices were compared, the difference in favor of one year trees 
Avas from nothing to $15 per hundred Avith an average of $6.50. 

(h) The freight is less. This is not an important matter but 
is worth considering, particularly when the stock comes a long 
distance. 

(c) Only thrifty trees are salable at one year; that is, a tree 
must be a good, groAvthy plant to reach a salable size in one year. 
Tliis is certainly important. It is doubtful if a stunted tree 
ever becomes as vigorous and thrifty as one Avhich has never had 
a set-back. 

(d) The tree can be headed at any desired height AA-hile the 
two year tree has had its head formed by the nurser\^man and it 
is difficult to change this height. This argument is especially 
important where one v/ants very Ioav heads, as the writer does. 
If one attempts to form a veiy low head, say 18 inches, on a tAvo 



AGE OF TREES 



41 



year tree that was headed at 30 inches by the nurseryman, he does 
so by cutting off all the branches and leaving only 18 inches of 
the old trunk. He has therefore taken off all the vigorous, 




Fig. 9. — Nursery tree with a poor fork. 
The best way to tre-it such a tree is to cut 
out all but one branch. 



Fig. 10. — A nursery tree that is too 
heavy. Over-grown trees like this are not 
as good as those of medium size. 



one-year-old buds and left nothing but dormant buds. The re- 
sult will be that when the tree starts, instead of making a well- 
shaped head as a one year tree would, it throws out branches 
irregularly all the way up the trunk wherever there happens to 
be a bud that is reasonably vigorous, and consequently one has 
a poor, misshapen tree. 

(e) The younger tree will stand transplanting better than 
the older one. This is probably not an important point, but age 



42 VARIETIES AND NURSERY STOCK 

seems as important with apple trees or pear trees as with cabbage 
plants or celery plants, where it is recognized as being of practi- 
cal importance. 

Older Trees. — On the other side of the question the writer 
has never seen but two arguments. The first and most important 
one is that the older trees will come into bearing more quickly. 
Personally we should want considerably more evidence than is at 
present available before accepting this. And, second, there seems 
to be a feeling among the advocates of the two year tree that 
they are getting more for their money. When they get an 
orchard of two year trees set out it makes some showing, while 
these little, one year whips, particularly when headed at eighteen 
inches, certainly do not look imposing. There is, however, one 
type of conditions under which the two year tree will usually give 
better results than the one year, and that is where the soil con- 
ditions (fertility, humus content, moisture, etc.) are poor. 
Under these conditions the tree will grow, but little, yet since 
the head of the two year tree is already formed the result is not 
serious. With the one year tree, however, the poor growth is 
likely to result in poorly distributed branches which can never 
be made to form a satisfactory head. 

The Best Size or Grade of Trees. — On this point the writer 
is quite decidedly in favor of the medium grade or size, say a 
four foot, one year tree or a five to six foot two year tree. The 
big, overgrown tree is apt to have poorer buds on it, particularly 
if it is to be headed low, and it costs much more (Fig. 10). On 
the other hand, the trees of very small size are not thrifty and 
are frequently not as well shaped. 

What Price Shall We Pay? — Enough to insure well-grown 
and well-packed stock. There is no economy in stock which is 
cheap in both price and quality. On the other hand, there is 
no use in paying the prices that are frequently asked. Of 
course, it is assumed that any man who has ambition and 
sense enough to want to plant out a large orchard will have 
too much sense to buy his stock from a tree agent. Where one is 
setting only a half dozen trees he can perhaps stand the prices 
of these agents, but even then he can probably do better to buy 
direct from the firm. 



ORDER TREES EARLY 43 

The price of nursery stock, in common with the price of 
beefsteak, has advanced rapidly of late years, and what 
constitutes a reasonable price to-day may be cheap a year from 
now, but at the present writing apple trees, and good ones, can be 
had at from $10 to $25 a hundred, pears $15 to $25, and peaches 
$8 to $15. It is very desirable, when placing an order of any 
considerable size, to get quotations from several different firms 
and to ask for sample trees. In this way one secures a definite 
standard of the quality or grade of stock, and from the several 
quotations can often save money, since one firm may be low on 
one part of the order while another firm is low on another part. 

Order Trees Early. — Having decided on our varieties and 
where to buy the trees, get the order in early. This is advice 
often given and seldom taken, but it is good advice nevertheless. 
One may be sure of disappointments all along the line if he delays 
too long ; varieties sold out, only two year trees to be had when he 
wants one year trees, nothing but three foot and six foot sizes 
left when he wants four to five foot, and so on. Get the order in 
by January, if it is possible to do so. Of course, it is possible. 
It is merely a question of doing it. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare general and special markets. 

2. Discuss the importance of " heavy bearing " in a variety. 

3. How important is early bearing? 

4. Give some idea of the importance of health and vigor. 

5. How does size influence the choice of varieties for market? 

6. What colors are most in demand? 

7. How important do you consider " quality " in fruit? 

8. Discuss the importance of good keeping quality in a variety. 

9. About how many varieties should be set in a commercial apple orchard? 

10. What is self-sterility? How does it influence the planting of orchards? 

11. Discuss the influence of temperature on the development of the first of 

apple trees. 

12. What is the objection to setting new varieties? 

13. What are the advantages of one- and two-year-old nursery trees? 

14. What is the most desirable size of nursery tree? 



CHAPTER lY 

ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 

With tlie nursery stock ordered and the orchard site chosen, 
we are free to consider the question of preparing the land and 
setting the trees. The preparation ought to be as thorough as the 
circumstances will permit. In actual practice, among good 
growers, it will vary all the way from the man who wants to 
know at least a year in advance where he is going to set his 
trees in order that he may grow a crop on the land that will 
leave the soil in the best possible condition for the young orchard, 
to the man who plows up old pasture for his orchard, or the man 
who does not even insist that the land shall be fully cleared of 
stumps. The results will vary just as widely though not in 
exactly the same way. That is, the man who uses stump land 
may develop a fine lot of trees, proviclod the soil is naturally 
good and provided also that he takes good care of the trees. The 
objection to the method is the difficulty he experiences in taldng 
good care of them, and the danger that this difficulty will dis- 
courage him. The writer very much prefers to have the land 
under cultivation the year before the orchard is set out, and if 
the crop grown on the land can be one which leaves the soil in 
specially good condition, such a crop as beans, or buckwheat, 
or even corn or potatoes, so much the better. 

One Year's Preparation. — In one orchard which the writer 
had a hand m setting, there was a block of sixteen acres which 
was mostly old pasture but in one corner of which a field of 
about four acres had been -fenced off the year previous and 
planted to corn. When the orchard was set this fence was re- 
moved and the whole block treated alike in preparation and set 
out to trees. It ought to be said also that the soil of the entire 
block was quite uniform, and yet when the trees began to 
grow those on the corn field were noticeably more thrifty than 
those on the old pasture and this difference was noticeable for 
44 



STEPS IN PREPARATION 45 

three or four years thereafter. Other similar cases might be 
cited, all tending to show the value of this previous treatment. 
Yet the writer is not prepared to say that he would defer plant- 
ing for a year in order to give this preliminary treatment. In 
fact he knows from experience that he probably would set out the 
trees and attempt, by better care and more fertilizer, to bring 
them along satisfactorily. By using good care all along the line 
the trees can be made to grow ver^^ satisfactorily in most cases. 

The final summing up of the case would therefore be : Gel 
one year's previous preparation if you can, but life is too short 
and orchard growing too long an investment, to warrant one 
in delaying a whole year, except in rare cases. 

Fall Plowing. — If we cannot have a year's preparatory treat- 
ment we usually can have the land plowed in the autumn, and 
unless the soil is in the best possible condition this is very de- 
sirable. It is particularly good on land which is a trifle heavy 
or in sod. But when the land has been fall plowed do not make 
the mistake of replowing it in the spring. It is not necessary- 
in the first place, and if there was any trash on the land, or if it 
had a tough sod, there will be, no end of vexatious experiences 
when it comes to setting the trees and cultivating the land. Let 
the sods and trash stay underneath where they belong and where 
they will decay. Of course where the field to be set has too much 
slope, fall plowing is out of the question on account of the wash- 
ing from winter rains, but in every other case it ought to be 
done. And this plowing may be done at any time before the 
ground freezes up solid. The fact that the soil is too wet for 
good plowing does not matter so much in the autumn as it woul<i 
in the spring, because the freezing during the winter will pre- 
vent any damage which might otherwise occur from working the 
soil when too wet. Heavy soil, so wet that it would be absolutely 
ruined for several years if plowed in that condition in the spring, 
may be fall plowed without injury. 

Steps in Preparation. — The actual preparation of the land 
for setting would consist then, first, of tliis plowing, done either 
spring or fall as the circumstances will admit. This should be 
followed by a thorough working with the disc harrow and this 



46 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 

probably by the spring-tooth or the smoothing harrow, whichever 
is available. And lastly the land should be gone over with a 
planker to smooth it off for laying out (Fig. 11). This can be 
omitted of course but it is worth the cost to secure the extra 
comfort in walking over the field and the greater accuracy in 
laying off the orchard. 

There are three general methods or plans of arranging the 
trees in the orchard. There is first the square method in which 
each tree stands at the corner of a square. This is by all means 




Fig. 11. — Finishing the land with a planker before beginning to lay off the orchard. This 
leaves the surface smooth, making it possible to stake out more easily and accurately. 

the most common method and has the practical advantage that 
it is an easy method to lay off. Then there is the triangular 
or quincunx method, which is like the square with the addition 
that a tree is placed in the centre of each of the squares. This 
tree is usually a temporary one or '^ filler " and there are just 
as many of these as of the permanents. And lastly we have 
what is known as the hexagonal method, where each tree stands 
in the centre of a hexagon formed by six trees and is equally 
distant from each one of them. This last method has the great 



DETAILS OF A GOOD METHOD 47 

advantage that it best utilizes the space in the orchard. It has 
the practical disadvantage that it is more difficult to lay out. 

Of course there are all sorts of minor variations. We may 
have the trees in rectangles instead of squares ; and we may have 
the triangular method carried further by putting in fillers be- 
tween the permanent trees in both directions. This last is an 
excellent method and the tree in the centre of the square is some- 
times made a somewhat longer-lived tree than the other fillers 
and is then called a semi-permanent. The following diagram 
illustrates the method. P represents the permanents, S the 
semi-permanents, and F the fillers. 



p 


F 


P 


F 


P 


F 


S 


F 


S 


F 


P 


F 


P 


F 


P 


F 


S 


F 


S 


F 



For example in using the plan we might set Baldwin for per- 
manents, Mcintosh for semi-permanents and Wealthy for fillers. 

Laying off the Land. — The operation of laying off the land 
preparatory to setting the trees is another in which we find the 
greatest variation among orchard men. Some are very particular 
to get their rows straight and each tree in its proper place, while 
others are satisfied with any method that will get the trees into 
the ground, using a plow to lay off the rows and doing no sighting 
w^hatever. It is always surprising to see how many men are 
satisfied with the latter type of orchard setting. They will put 
more care into laying out a dog-kennel or a chicken coop that 
would last possibly ten years, than into laying off an orchard 
that will outlast their children and their children 's children. The 
writer believes emphatically in using sufficient care to get the 
rows straight. It does not take a great amount of care either. 

Details of a Good Method. — Various methods may be used, 
but the following is one which has been used with the greatest 
satisfaction. It is reasonably cheap, expeditious, and very 
accurate. The details are as follows: First, select a base line 



48 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 

along one side of the field to be set. This will usually be either 
along the highway or a line fence (Fig. 12). Next set a stake on 
this line in one corner of the field where the corner tree is to 
stand. It ought to be far enough from the highway and the line 
fence to allow plenty of room for turning. Twenty or twenty- 
five feet is none too much. Next set a range stake at the other 
side of the field and the same distance from the highway. These 
two stakes establish the base line. Now begin at stake No. 1 and 
set stakes along the base line and towards stake No. 2 the proper 







• • 

5TAKE~ NO 2. 


If 


STAKE NOJ 






Z 

u 




T— «=-^— J- 


L. 






h- "" -1 








Ii) 










Z 
] 




. 

















Fig. 12. — Diagram showing method of laying off a field for planting an orchard. 

distance apart for the trees, say twenty feet if fillers are to be 
used. Having run the line across the field, begin about the centre 
of this line of stakes and lay off another line of stakes at right 
angles to the first. In establishing this second line use the 
carpenter's method for laying off a right angle, taking 6, 8 and 
10 feet for the three sides of the right triangle. This is all the 
sighting that is required by the method under discussion. The 
rest of the stakes are set with two ^' measuring boards " which 
are made as long as the desired distance between the trees. Inch 
boards three inches wide will be found satisfactory for the pur- 



ANOTHER METPIOD 49 

pose. There is a notch at either end of each board. Figures 12 
and 13 will serve to explain the method. The measuring boards 
can be handled more easily if they are fastened together with a 
small bolt. 

It will surprise any one who has never seen this method used 
to find how quickly and accurately the stakes can be set (Fig. 
14), and it does not require liigh-priced labor, either. Any good 
man with a little interest in his work will do it admirably. On 
a farm in which the writer is interested one hundred and twenty- 
five acres of orchard have been laid out by this <^c> 
method and most of it was done by Polanders, many 
of whom could speak no English. They were simply 
'* shown," and the proprietors of the orchard would be 
glad to have any one who doubts the efficiency of the method 
visit the place- 
Planting Board. — By this method a stake is set at 
every point to be occupied by a tree, and the next point 
is to be sure that the tree is established in the identical 
spot where the stake stood. To do this a device known as a 
*' planting board " is used (Fig. 15). This is simply a 
board, perhaps five feet long and six inches wide, with a 
notch cut in either end and one at the exact centre. This 
board is placed on the ground so that the tree stake comes 
in the central 
notch. Then a "^^ ^^^m^^^^—^^^^m^^'^^^-^-^-^^^^^s^ss^^ ^^^ 

stake is driven 

Fig. 13. — Diagram of measuring boards. Drawn to scale. 

do\^Ti m each oi 

the end notches and the board is removed and a hole dug for 
the tree where the central stake stood. "When it comes time to 
set the tree, whether that be the same day or a week later, the 
board is put back into place, the tree slipped into the central 
notch, the earth shovelled in, and there the tree stands just where 
it is wanted. In setting an orchard of any size it is necessary to 
have several of these planting boards, and care should be taken 
to see that they are all exactly alike. 

Another method which the writer has used with great satis- 
faction and which is particularly good when the trees are a 
4 



50 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



considerable distance apart, is to begin at one corner of the field, 
as suggested above, and run a row of stakes along each of the four 
sides. This establishes the end tree in each row. Then take a 
gang of three men to set the rest of the stakes. One man sights in 
one direction, another in the other direction and the third man 




Fig. 14. — Staking oil the orchard by means of two measuring boards. 

sets the stakes. He is " waved " into position by the two 
sighters as each stake is set and very soon gets it in the proper 
spot. 




Fig. 15. — Planting board for locating tree in setting. See also Figure 19. 

Heeling In. — When the trees arrive they should be heeled in 
at some spot convenient to the orchard site, usually on the site 
itself (Fig. 16). This heeling in should be done with a good 
deal of care, the bundles of trees being opened and the earth 
worked carefully in among the roots and tramped down solid. 



HEELING IN 51 

In some cases it is worth while even to water them, especially 
if they are to stand here long before setting:. The writer em- 
phasizes this matter because he has so often seen trees heeled in 
carelessly- without opening the bundles and without tramping 
the soil down carefully, with the result that the air passing 
down through the centre of the bundles would circulate freely 
among the roots and dry them out so as to weaken seriously, or 
even kill outright, a good many trees. 




^ 




Fig. 16. — Heeling in nursery stock. This should be done very carefully to prevent the 

roots drying out. 

"Where trees arrive in bad condition from drying in transit, 
they should be taken to a brook or to a pond and soaked for a 
day or two, if possible having the whole tree under water. It is 
surprising what this will do for even the worst cases. 

Another thing to guard against at the time of heeling in is 
damage from mice. They will frequently gain entrance to a 
bundle of trees, particularly if the trees are stored near the 
house, and girdle every tree in the bundle. Where mice are 
plentiful enough to be troublesome in this way, they should be 
yarded against by putting a pen about the spot where the trees 



52 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



are heeled in. A board ten or twelve inches wide will answer 
the purpose. 

Working Out the Plan. — In actual orchard operations the 
entire field is usually not staked off before the digging of the 





ff' 




Fig. 17. — A load of nursery trees ready for the setting gang. The barrels are half full 
of waier, which inouierf the trees arriving at tne hole in good condition. 

Fig. 18. — Gang of men setting trees. The men work in pairs and the foreman distributes 

the trees. 



holes and setting of the trees is begun. A method which the 
writer has used on a fairly large orchard with entire satisfaction 
is the following: The setting gang consists of from six to ten 



WHEN TO PLANT 53 

men and a foreman. After the first two lines of stakes have 
been set (the base line and the one at riglit angles to it), and 
after some start has been made in locating the stakes with the 
measuring boards, which preliminary work can be done most 
economically by about three men, this gang goes into the field 
and is divided as follows : Two men continue setting stakes, the 
foreman and one man go after trees, and the balance of the gang 
begin digging holes. 

The foreman and his assistant go to the spot where the trees 
are heeled in. They have a stone boat on which are mounted two 
barrels, which are half full of water, and the stone boat drawn 
by a single horse (Fig. 17). The trees are pulled out and the 
roots trimmed by taking off any broken roots and cutting back 
any long, straggling ones. Then the tree is put into one of the 
barrels. This insures the tree arriving at the hole in the best 
possible condition with its rocts thoroughly wet. When both 
barrels are full, the horse is driven out to the spot where setting 
is to begin, and the men who are staking off and those who are 
digging holes, all " knock off " and go to setting (Fig. 18). The 
foreman distributes the trees and the men divide into pairs, one 
man doing the shovelling and the other setting the tree. If the 
subsoil is poor, it is best when the hole is dug, to put the surface 
soil in one pile and the subsoil in another. Then when the tree 
is set the surface soil may be used about the roots and thus give 
the tree a better soil in which to start gro^\i;h. The tree should 
be set perhaps an inch or two deeper than it stood in the nurser>^, 
and the soil should be worked in among the roots and then very 
firmly tramped down (Figs. 19 and 20). This last is extremely 
important, as it not only keeps the soil from drying out but it 
brings the soil in intimate contact with the roots so that thej^ 
can start growth better. 

When to Plant. — The question of fall vs. spring planting 
ought to be mentioned here. There are three distinct advantages 
of fall planting; first, the planter is almost certain to get the 
varieties that he wants because he is compelled to order so early ; 
second, the trees are ready to start growth early in the spring; 
and third, it gets just so much work out of the way of the 
" spring rush." This last is of vars^ing importance according 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 







Fig. 19. — Ready to set a two year apple tree. The tree is set a little deeper than it stood 

in the nursery. 

Fig. 20. — Same tree as shown in Figure 19, set. 

to the man and the farm. On many farms the autumn " rush " 
is fully as virulent as the spring one. 

The chief objection to autumn planting is that the trees have 



HIGH HEADING 55 

to be dug so early, in order to insure their getting to the orchard 
man on time, that the nurseryman may be tempted into digging 
them before they are mature enough for the leaves to drop 
naturally. The leaves must therefore be stripped, and the 
stripped tree is not so good as one which loses its leaves 
naturally, because it is robbed of much plant food which the 
leaves would have suiDplied had they been allowed to remain on 
the trees. Stripping the leaves too early exposes the immature 
buds and uncalloused leaf scars to the weather. There is the 
additional objection to autumn planting that, since the roots are 
not well established in the soil, the tree can not withstand un- 
favorable winter conditions so well. Alternate freezing and 
thawing during variable weather is likely to make trouble, 
particularly if the soil is at all heavy. 

The chief advantages of spring planting are that the grower 
gets his trees in better condition and that the danger from winter 
injury is avoided. The main objection to spring planting is that 
it is likely to be delaj'^ed until too late in the season. In the 
writer's experience the ideal time to set trees is just as early in 
the spring as the soil is in good condition to work. 

Pruning after Setting. — After the tree is set it must be 
pruned (Fig. 21). If it is a one year whip this pruning con- 
sists merely in cutting it off or heading it at the height desired. 
Just what this height shall be will vary greatly with different 
men. The writer is very strongly in favor of a decidedly low 
head. The trees which he, himself, has set have been headed all 
the way from two feet to six inches but principally at eighteen 
inches. The height ought undoubtedly to vary with the variety 
(Fig. 22). Such very drooping varieties as the Rhode Island 
Greening apple, for example, ought certainly to be headed as 
high as two feet and might perhaps be headed considerably higher, 
while with such very upright varieties as the Sutton apple and 
the Wickson plum there is no particular excuse for having any 
trunk at all. 

High Heading. — As the writer has heard the matter pre- 
sented, the principal arguments for a high head are as follows: 



56 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



1. That it makes it easier to cultivate about the trees. There 
is probably something in this argument but it has never seemed 
very strong. To begin with, the advocates of a high head 
exaggerate the difficulty of cultivating about a low headed tree. 
The branches of a high headed tree tend to come out more nearly 
at right angles so that they droop easily as they become heavy 
with the weight of a crop, while the branches of a low headed 




Fig. 21. — Same tree as shown in figures 19 
and 20 after pruning. 



Fig. 22. — Pruning a one-year "whip." The 

tree is cut olf at whatever height it is desired 
to form the head.. 



tree tend to take an upward slant so that they are not so much 
in the way as might be expected, and they do not bend so easily 
with their load of fruit. Then, too, the situation is very different 
with the modern extension implements from what it was when it 
was necessary for the team to get close up to the trunk of the 
tree. Moreover it does not make very much difference to the tree 
whether every weed is taken out from about the trunk or not. The 



HIGH HEADING 



57 



feeding roots of large trees are not there to any extent, but are 
out some little distance from the trunk. 

2. The second argument for a high head is that there is less 
breakage from snow. This is a sound argument and in those 
sections where deep snows are liable to occur and drift over the 
trees the heads ought to be higher. 

3. The third argument for the high head is that there are 
less culls than with the low head, because in the latter, the lower 
branches are so close to the 

ground that they do not get 

enough light and air to pro- ; ( 

duce fine fruit. There may 
be some truth in this, but it 
has never seemed to the writer 
that it was a very serious mat- 
ter. The fruit on the lower 
branches of any tree is not so 
good as that from the higher 
branches, and there has not 
seemed to be a very great 
difference between that from 
low headed and that from 
high headed trees. 

4. An argument which has 
been advanced in New Eng- 
land, and perhaps it may be 
used elsewhere, is that trees 
ought to be headed high in 
order to escape the deer. It 
seems singular that such an argument should even be suggested 
seriously but it has been quite frequently offered where States are 
cursed with laws Avhich protect the deer at the expense of the 
farmers. Damage from deer is a very live question with the 
writer, for he has seen over two thousand fruit trees, principally 
apple, either killed outright or so badly damaged that they had 
to be replaced. But deer damage is an argument for changing 
representatives in the Legislature and not for heading the fruit 
trees higher. 




Fig. 23. — An extreme case of high heading. 
Most work in the orchard costs naore with 
such trees than with low headed trees. 



58 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 

Low Heading. — Turning now to the arguments for the low 
headed tree we have the following: 

1. There is less damage from winds. This would apply to 
mature trees where in summer the number of windfalls and in 
winter danger of damage from ice-storm would be reduced. It 
would also apply to the young trees. A tree such as is shown in 
Figure 23 will be much more liable to damage from winds than 
such a tree as is shown in Figure 24. 

2. There is less danger from sun-scald. In some sections this 
trouble is very serious, in others it seldom occurs. In the former 
sections low heads ought always to be used. 

3. Spraying can be done more cheaply and much more 
thoroughly. This latter is especially important in sections where 
the San Jose scale is abundant, but it counts with any spraying. 

4. Pruning can be done more cheaply and easily. 

5. It is easier and cheaper to harvest the fruit. As soon as 
a man has to use a ladder to do his work he adds to the expense 
of the operation, whatever it may be. The longer the ladder the 
greater the expense. With low headed peach trees all the pick- 
ing can be done from the ground, and with apples, a great part 
of it (Fig. 24). 

6. In extreme cases, like the tree shown in Figure 23, and to 
a less extent in less -extreme cases, the fruiting of the tree is 
delayed when the head is raised because the oldest branches are 
the lowest ones and these are removed to raise the head. 

Several other minor arguments are used by the enthusiastic 
advocates of low heads, but the foregoing are the most important 
and seem to justify fully the practice. The one argument of 
ease and cheapness of doing the work on the trees is in itself 
enough to settle the question. Of course, it does not necessarily 
follow that a tree headed high will be allowed to continue its 
growth high, but this is usually the case. The man who wants 
his trees headed low usually sees to it that the leaders are kept 
reasonably low. 

Planting Distances. — There are several general questions 
which will perhaps come here as well as elsewhere. The first 
of these is the matter of the proper distance apart for the trees. 



PLANTING DISTANCES 59 

Of course there are almost innumerable factors which influence 
this, the most important being the kind of trees, the individual 
taste of the owner, the soil and the method of pruning to be 
adopted. 

Some varieties of apples make large trees and some never 
attain much size. The Spy or the Baldwin, for example, want 
more room than the Palmer Greening and the Wagener. 

Some soils will grow large trees of a certain variety while on 
other soils the same variety is relatively small. The orchard 
shown in Figure 108, for example, is a block of Baldwins prob- 
ably not far from thirty years old. They are planted at 33 
feet apart and yet there is plenty of rcom for them. They 
will never make large trees. 






Fig. 24. — A low headed, five-year-old, peach tree. This tree was henrlpd at six inches. 

The kind of pruning also makes a great difference. If the 
owner plans to give the trees free range they will need far more 
room than if he practises more or less repressive pruning. 

When all these points are considered the following are about 
the average distances recommended: 

Apples 30 to 40 feet 

Pears 20 to 30 feet 

Peaches 13 to 20 feet 

Plums 15 to 20 feet 

Cherries 15 to 25 feet 

Quinces 8 to 12 feet 



60 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 



Number per Acre. — The following table gives the number of 
trees per acre that can be set at the distances given. If one 
wishes to ascertain how many trees can be planted on an acre 



3' 





Fig. 25. 




FiQ. : 


r 




J? 1 


n 






^^ ^m 


^H 




M - , ^M *P 


ijR 


H 




^^Kti''.. 


^ 


% 




Wmmmm 


.^ 





Fig. 25. — ^An apple tree with a medium head, about thirty inches. This is a good height 
for many varieties, though the writer prefers a somewhat lower head. 

Fig. 26. — A poor fork on a Ben Davis apple tree. Such a fork is almost certain to 
split down as soon as the tree begins to bear heavy crops. The two side branches should 
have been cut off earlier. 

at other distances than those given, multiply the number of feet 
that the rows are apart by the distance apart of the trees in the 
row and then divide 43,560 by the product obtained. 



8 


X 


8 


feet- 


-680 


8 


X 


10 


feet- 


-544 


8 


X 


12 


feet— 453 


10 


X 


10 


feet- 


-435 


10 


X 


12 


feet- 


-363 


10 


X 


20 


feet- 


-217 


12 


X 


12 


feet- 


-302 


12 


X 


20 


feet- 


-181 


15 


X 


15 


feet- 


-193 


15 


X 


20 


feet- 


-145 


15 


X 


30 


feet- 


- 96 


IG 


X 


16 


feet- 


-170 


IG 


X 


20 


feet- 


-136 



16 


X 


32 feet— 


• 85 


20 


X 


20 


feet- 


•108 


20 


X 


30 


feet— 


■ 72 


20 


X 


40 


feet— 54 


25 


X 


25 


feet- 


■ 69 


25 


X 


30 


feet- 


• 58 


25 


X 


40 


feet- 


43 


30 


X 


30 


feet— 48 


30 


X 


35 


feet- 


• 41 


30 


X 


40 


feet— 


• 36 


35 


X 


35 


feet- 


• 35 


35 


X 


40 


feet- 


■ 31 


40 


X 


40 


feet— 


■ 27 



KINDS TO USE AS FILLERS 61 

Orchard Fillers. — The question of the use of ' ' fillers ' ' in the 
orchard is a vexed one. A filler is a temporary tree, usually a 
small and early bearing one, which is planted between the per- 
manent trees and removed (sometimes) when it begins to crowd 
them. Most men have very definite opinions on the filler, either 
condemning it altogether or favoring it with equal decision. 
The matter simpty narrows down to this, or it ought to : If a man 
can make more money out of growing fillers in the orchard than 
he can out of any other crop, then they are the best crop to grow. 
If beans or potatoes or cabbages will bring him more money, then 
he should grow these crops and not fillers. 

The chief objection urged against the use of fillers in the 
orchard is that they are not cut out as soon as they should be. 
The owner holds onto them from year to year in order to get a 
revenue from them. If they have not borne much fruit he feels 
that he must hold onto them until they come into bearing and he 
*' gets his money out of them." If they are bearing w^ell then 
he feels that he simply cannot destroy the source of so much 
income. Now while the writer is strongly in favor of the filler 
system for his own use and believes that it ought to be possible 
for a man to cut the fillers out in season, yet there is no question 
that the method does often fail. 

This filler question is in exactly the same class as the sod- 
mulch question. Where either one is well carried out it gives 
good results, but both of them tempt the owner to do what is not 
for the best interest of the orchard, in the one case by hauling off 
the hay and in the other by holding onto the fillers. As most of us 
yield to temptations, it is best not to put any extra ones in our 
ow^n paths unless we are pretty sure that we can resist them. The 
man who keeps stock ought not to have a sod orchard, and the 
man who can not bring himself to prune a tree severely enough 
or to thin fruit " because it is such a waste " had better not try 
the filler system. 

Kinds to Use as Fillers. — But for the man who can and will 
handle it rightly, it is a good system. If a man is going to use 
fillers he is most likely to be successful if he uses for the purpose 



62 



ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 




Cost of the young orchard 63 

a tree which very closely resembles his permanent tree in its 
needs, which comes into bearing early, and which makes a small 
tree (Fig. 27). This means that peaches make the best fillers 
for peach orchards and apples for apple orchards. Many people 
make light of this point but others consider it a decidedly practi- 
cal one. Here is an illustration of the evil effects of mixing 
species in setting an orchard: An apple orchard was set and 
peaches were used for fillers. All went well until the peaches 
were damaged severely one winter. Then it became desirable to 
help the peaches to recover and the orchard was therefore given 
an application of nitrate of soda, which brought them out in 
good condition. But the apple trees did not need this extra 
nitrogen. They were just coming nicely into bearing, but they at 
once stopped producing fruit and began to produce wood. It 
was years before they recovered from the extra stimulus and 
went to bearing again. 

Now we may say that the ow^ner was foolish; that he should 
have done what was best for his permanent trees and let his 
peach trees go. But it is human nature to try to take care of 
what is producing a revenue and it is certainly a weak spot in 
any system, whether it be orcharding or municipal politics, 
which requires a man to do otherwise. 

Cost of the Young Orchard. — It may be well to say a word 
here in reference to the cost of establishing an orchard. Of 
course this can be only suggestive, as expenses vary greatly with 
different men and different sections and different years. The 
following figures are from the writer's actual experience in 
starting an orchard. They are by no means complete and leave 
out many factors, such as interest and taxes, which ought to be 
included. They may be helpful, however, and are introduced 
merely with that hope and with the distinct realization by the 
writer that they can be only suggestive. 



64 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD 

Cost per acre of estahlishing and maintaining an orchard for five years. 

FIEST YEAR 

1. Trees— 108 @ 15 cents $1G.20 

2. Fitting land, setting and pruning trees 6.48 

3. Fertilizing 1.00 

4. CultJA'ating 4.50 

5. Cover crop — buckwheat seed and sowing 1.00 

6. Clearing away trash from trees in aiitumn to prevent 

mice damage .50 

$30.28 

SECOND YEAR 

1. Pruning $2.50 

2. Fertilizing (same as first year except double the 

nitrogen) 1.75 

3. Fitting the land with disc 3.60 

4. Cultivation 4.50 

5. Hoeing 1.00 

6. Cover crop — cow horn turnips .75 

7. Clearing away trasli in autumn .50 

$14.60 

THIRD YEAR 

1. Pruning $3.00 

2. Fertilizing — double second year 3.50 

3. Fitting the land 3.60 

4. Cultivating 4.50 

5. Hoeing 1.00 

6. Spraying for San Jose scale 4.10 

7. Cover crop 1.00 

8. Clearing- awav trash .50 



$21.20 



FOURTH YEAR 

Total cost onlv slightly more than third year. 



FIFTH YEAR 

1. Pruning $4.50 

2. Fertilizing 5.25 

3. Fitting the land 3.60 

4. Cultivating 4.50 

5. Hoeing 1.00 

6. Spraying 5.25 

7. Cover crop — crimson clover 1.20 

$25.30 



QUESTIONS 65 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss the preparation of the land for an orchard. 

2. Describe three general methods of arranging the trees in an orchard. 

3. Give the details of a good method of laying off an orchard. 

4. What is a "planting board," and how is it helpful? 

5. Describe the operation of heeling in trees. 

6. Give the arguments on " fall vs. spring " planting. 

7. Give the main arguments in favor of high heading of orchard trees. 

8. What are the arguments in favor of low heading ? 

9. What orchards in your section would you classify as high headed? 

What low headed ? 

10. Give some idea of the best planting distances for different orchard trees. 

11. Discuss the use of "fillers" in an orchard. 

12. Give some idea of cost of starting a young orchard in your own section. 



CHAPTER V 
CROPPING THE ORCHARD 

One of the questions which comes home very forcibly to the 
man who attempts to develop an orchard of any size is that of 
growing companion crops in the orchard while it is young. Shall 
this be done and if so what crops shall be used? The idea of 
such a crop is to help defray the cost of the orchard, and con 
sequently it must either be a crop, such as mangels or turnips, 




Fig. 28. — Late potatoes in a young peach orchard. An excellent crop when rightly managed 

which can be used profitably by the owner on the farm, or else 
it must be a crop such as beans or soybeans, which can be dis- 
posed of for cash. The general farmer who keeps stock has, 
therefore, a distinct advantage over the orchard specialist in 
the choice of these companion crops, because a number of the 
best of them are such as will work in very nicely with the plans 
for feeding stock or keeping dairy cows. 

For several years, say four or five as a rule, it is greatly to 
the advantage of the young trees if the orchard is cropped, pro- 
66 



THE IDEAL COMPANION CROP 



67 



vided, of course, that the proper crops are chosen. This is espe- 
cially true on general farms where there are other crops than 
the orchard to compete for the time of men and teams. If the 
potato field is in the orchard, both are cultivated together, and 
the trees are not only well cultivated, but receive the benefit of the 
fertilizer left over from the potato crop (Fig. 28). On the other 
hand, if the potato field is in one place and the orchard is in 
another, the potatoes frequently get the cultivation when labor 
is scarce, while the cultivation of the orchard is either deferred 




Fia. 29. — Soybeans as a companion crop. This is one of the best crops for a young orchard, 
enriching the land and usually giving profitable returns. 



to a more convenient time or omitted altogether, because the 
farmer knows that he will get no crop if his potatoes are not 
cultivated while his trees will do something even wdth very in- 
different culture. 

The ideal companion crop would have the following char- 
acteristics, and though the ideal does not exist we can frequently 
come fairly close to it : 

1. The crop must be profitable, either because it can be sold 
for cash or because it can be fed with profit to the stock on the 
farm (Fig. 29). This point, of course, is imperative. The list 



68 CROPPING THE ORCHARD 

of crops which are admissible will vary greatly Avith the owner's 
circumstances. As already suggested the farm on which stock 
is kept can profitably use a number of crops which can not be 
grown on the special fruit farm. And these crops happen to be 
among the most sa.tisfactory in their relation to the orchard. 
The man who is in the trucking business, or who is so situated 
that he can handle truck crops, has another large selection of 
crops which are almost ideal so far as the orchard is concerned, 
but these crops can not usually be grown in sections far from 
markets. It foUow^s then that the orchard specialist has the 
smallest number of companion crops from, which to choose. 

2. The crop should be one which requires cultivation. There 
is absolutely no question about this unless it be in the case of 
crops sown late in the season which are really cover crops rather 
than companion crops. This matter of cultivation is a point 
frequently overlooked by men who grow crops in their orchards, 
but we are speaking of the ideal crops now. And the more 
thorough the cultivation which is required by the crop the better 
for the orchard. 

3. It ought to be a crop which does not require late stirring 
of the soil, say in August or September. September work is 
particularly objectionable. The philosophy of this point will be 
seen on a moment's reflection, and the importance of it has been 
demonstrated to the writer over and over again, though always, 
he is glad to say, by other people. The young trees make their 
growth early in the season and by August, and still more by 
September, they are " sobering down " and thickening their 
cells and beginning to get ready for winter. Now suppose one is 
growing such a crop as early potatoes for example. Just at the 
point where the trees want quiet the owner comes in with his 
gang of men or his potato digger and gives the soil the most 
thorough working it has had since the spring plowing. The re- 
sult is that the trees are urged into new growth, new food is 
made available for them and they go merrily forward till cold 
weather comes on and checks them short. There is no time 
then to prepare for the more severe weather which follows and 
consequently the cambium or growing layer, between the bark 



THE IDEAL COMPANION CROP 



69 



and wood, is soft and tender and no more able to resist freezing 
than a potato or a turnip. It is therefore killed outright or 
severely damaged and the next year the trees, though they may 
leaf out, will be found in a very bad condition. Many of them 
will probably die, and others might as well do so, for they will 
be so badly crippled as to be of little value. 

4. The companion crop should be one which does not take 
from the soil exactly the same food elements as the trees them- 
selves require. This is aimed especially at nursery stock, which 
for several reasons is a peculiarly objectionable crop, but it 




Fig. 30. — Pea-beans as an orchard crop. This is another excellent crop from the stand- 
point of the orchard. 



probably applies with more or less force to all fruit crops. Of 
course this is a difficulty which can be obviated to a certain 
extent by applying extra fertilizer, but it is far better to choose 
some other crop. 

5. It should be an annual crop. Anyone who has ever 
attempted to crop an orchard with even a biennial crop like 
strawberries, or still worse with a perennial one like raspberries, 
will appreciate the importance of this point. Cross-cultivation 
is usually entirely prevented after the first year, the block grows 
more and more weedy and the trees in the block show more and 
more distinctly the handicap under which they are working, tiU 



70 CROPPING THE ORCHARD 

very soon one may easily pick out, at a considerable distance, the 
section of the orchard where the perennial crop is located by the 
small size of the trees and the light color of their leaves. Of 
course it is possible by extra effort in the way of hand labor, and 
by extra fertilizing Avith good barn manure, to overcome to a 
certain extent the bad effects of the crop, but these are expensive 
methods to use and to a very large extent they take away any 
profit which might accrue from the crop. Usually they are not 
even attempted. It is much better to use an annual crop which 
is cleared off the land each year and which thus allows of 
thorough preparation of the soil each spring. 

6. Lastly, and least important, though still well worth con- 
sidering, the crop should be one which makes its growth at some 
other time than that in which the orchard makes its most vigorous 
growth. This is one reason why beans, for example, are to be 
preferred to currants. The beans are not planted until the trees 
are at the height of their growth, and they do not begin to draw at 
all heavily on the soil moisture and plant food until the trees 
have come to a point where they can easily and even advan- 
tageously spare a part of both moisture and plant food. The 
currants, on the other hand, come along at precisely the same 
time as the trees and compete with them step by step for both 
fertility and water. 

Area Reserved for Trees. — It ought to be said, before going 
farther, that in any scheme of cropping the orchard a certain 
portion of land must be reserved for the exclusive use of the 
trees. This will vary with different crops and with the age of 
the trees, but as a rule a strip six or eight feet wide along each 
row of trees should be reserved the first year and this should be 
enlarged year by year as the trees grow. 

Lists of Companion Crops. — With the above requirements in 
mind the writer has chosen the following list of companion crops 
and has attempted to arrange them under three classes — good, 
bad and indifferent. They are also arranged in the different 
sections roughly in the order of their value from the standpoint 
of the orchard, the most objectionable ones coming last. 



GOOD COMPANION CROPS 71 

Good Companion Crops. — 1. Beans. — Any variety will be 
satisfactory to the orchard, but especially the white pea-bean. 
The soybean is also admirable. There is almost no objec- 
tion to these crops. They are usually profitable, are sown late, 
add nitrogen to the soil, and no damage arises from their use. 
When removed from the orchard the root systems are usually 
left in the soil, which adds both humus and nitrogen. 

2. Squash is another excellent crop, coming along with a 
rush late in the season when the orchard ought to '' sober 
down," never competing with the trees, and frequently giving 




'^'^r^l^^^'J 




Fig. 31. — Squashes as an orchard crop. They are an excellent crop from the standpoint 
of the orchard and where the owner can handie them rightly are usually protitabie. 



good financial returns. It can be marketed in a wholesale way, 
which is not true of all crops and which is frequently a decided 
advantage to the orchard owner (Fig. 31). 

3. Cabbage. — This is another decidedly satisfactory com- 
panion crop. It usually commands a fair price and can be 
handled in car-load lots if the orchard is of some size. It is 
nearly ideal so far as its effect on the trees is concerned. The 
only objection to it is that it requires cultivation later than the 
trees do, but if the strip already spoken of is reserved there is 
usually no trouble. 



72 



CROPPING THE ORCHARD 



4. Turnips and Mangels. — These are both excellent crops 
from the standpoint of the orchard, but of course are not 
" cash " crops as a rule and must usually be restricted to the 
man who keeps stock. It might be possible in some cases to 
grow them for a neighbor who keeps stock, but generally they 
must be fed on the place. 

5. Late Potatoes. — The writer would bar out early potatoes, 
unless a very wide strip is reserved along the tree rows, which is 




Fig. 32. — Potatoes in a bearing apple orchard. They make a good orchard crop, but in this 
case are planted too close to the trees. 

an unnecessary waste of land. But late potatoes are dug so late 
in the season that they do not tend to prolong the growth of the 
trees and they are generally a profitable and satisfactory crop. 
They require good cultivation and high fertilizing and it is 
rare that they do not show a reasonable profit (Fig. 32). 

6. Truck Crops, such as spinach, beets, peas, and carrots, 
are all good crops and if handled carefully will generally give 



FAIRLY SATISFACTORY CROPS 73 

fine results. They need good land and good cultivation, which 
help out the orchard trees. One difficulty with them which 
ought to be guarded against by the orchard owner is the fact 
that they usually require a good deal of barn manure and other 
forms of nitrogen, and it is a very easy matter to get the land too 
rich for the best interest of the young trees. It would probably 
be better not to use them year after year in the same block of 
orchard but to practise rotation of crops, following truck crops 
with squash and this with beans. 

7. Corn. — There is some prejudice against corn, and perhaps 
rightly, because it is a rank feeder and is likely to get more than 
its share of food and moisture ; also because its great height tends 
to shade the j^oung trees. But if it is not grown too close to the 
trees and if the rows are run north and south so that the sun can 
get at the trees when its power is greatest, the objections will 
usually be overcome, and the writer knows from experience that 
it may work out satisfactorily. It is a crop that is usually profit- 
able. If the farm is an orchard proposition pure and simple, the 
grain from corn can be fed to teams on the place and even the fod- 
der may be used in this way in winter, if there is no winter work 
for the teams. Probably it would be better to restrict this crop 
to popcorn or to flint varieties which do not make tall stalks, and 
it is perhaps better not to grow corn after the third year of the 
orchard, though there are many exceptions to these suggestions. 

8. Buckwheat. — This is really a combination cover crop and 
companion crop, but is included here because it is a reasonably 
satisfactory money crop to be grown in the orchard. Of course, 
in order to get the money out of it one has to cut the crop and 
remove it from the orchard, which is strictly against the rules 
for a cover crop. But that is something the grower has to learn 
to do '* when necessary," if he is going to run an orchard. The 
difficult thing to learn is when it is necessary. 

Fairly Satisfactory Crops. — 9. Currants and Gooseherries, 
if the bushes are set in rows both ways to allow for cultivation, 
are often quite satisfactory. The fact that they are perennial 
and that they make their growth each season at exactly the same 
time as the orchard is the chief objection to them. But they re- 



74 



CROPPING THE ORCHARD 



quire good culture and fertilizing if they are to be profitable, 
which makes them acceptable to the young trees. They do not 
spread, which makes them at least less objectionable than some 
other crops. 

10. Stratvherries. — For young orchards, where there is still 
plenty of room, these are not bad (Fig. 33). But they tie up the 
land for two years at least, and with many growers much longer 
than that. They can not be cross-cultivated, so that the tree 




Fig. 33. — Straw bei no iii a yuun^ peaih uiclund. They make a fairly good crop for 
very young orchards, but interieie wiih cross-cultivation, as they occupy the land at least 
two years. 

rows are apt to become foul with weeds and the trees to show 
the lack of thorough cultivation by the second year. If the 
beds are held for more than one crop of berries, the damage to 
the trees is ver}^ markedly increased. Personally the writer 
would not use strawberries except during the first and second 
years of the orchard and even then there are many other crops 
to be preferred. A great point in favor of strawberries is the 
fact that they generally pay well. This is somethuig that will be 
appreciated by the man who tries to develop a good sized orchard. 



POOR COMPANION CROPS 75 

The question of the advisability of growing strawberries in an 
orchard practically narrows down to whether the orchard is 
to be intensively cultivated or not. If it is, then with a littl" 
extra work the tree rows can be kept clean. On the other hand, 
if the owner wants to manage the orchard with as little labor as 
possible he will almost certainly fail to keep it even reasonably 
clean with strawberries growing in it. 

11. Asparagus is not often used and has the serious objection 
that it must stand in the orchard for a number of years, yet 
cases are occasionally seen where it is used with very good 
success. 

Poor Companion Crops. — 12. Raspberries and hlackherries 
ought practically to be debarred *as orcharcl'" crops. The long 
period that they have to stand, the difficulty or impossibility of 
cross-cultivation, and the fact that they sucker so freely are the 
chief objections. These can be overcome by hand labor, by barn 
manure, and by the free use of other fertilizers. Ordinarily, 
however, it is the yoting trees that are overcome and not the 
difficulties. 

13. Nursery Stock. — The growing of this crop in the orchard 
is seldom practised a ad almost always with regret so far as its 
effect on the orchard trees is concerned. It grows at exactly the 
same time as the young orchard trees, takes out the same fertilizer 
elements, and uses moisture at the same time. And it usually 
stands two or three years. On the whole it is much better to put 
the nursery somewhere else. 

14. Grains of all kinds should be strictly ruled out. They 
have only one redeeming feature and that is that they are annual 
crops. But they are not cultivated, they prevent cross-cultivation 
of the trees, they rob the trees of moisture, and the part of the 
orchard where they are grown will always show the injurious 
effects, at the time and frequently for several years after. 

15. Hay. — Never use it. It is the last crop in our list and is 
placed there because it is regarded as " the limit." There are 
a few sod enthusiasts w^ho claim to be, and probably are, success- 
ful in starting young trees in sod. But most growers, even 
though they resort to sod later on., start their trees under culti- 



76 CROPPING THE ORCHARD 

vation. Hay competes at every step with the young trees, robbing 
them of moisture and plant food when they most need them, and 
providing excellent conditions for injurious insects of various 
kinds, and when the hay is harvested the trees are liable to all 
sorts of accidents from the mowing machine, the rake, and the 
hay wagons. If you are tempted to use hay, by all means resist 
the temptation ! 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the characteristics of an ideal companion crop for the 

orchard ? 

2. How many years should such crops be used in the orchard? 

3. How should the land along the tree rows be treated? 

Discuss each of the following as companion crops for orchards: 

4. Beans. 12. Currants and gooseberries. 

5. Squash. 13. Strawberries. 

6. Cabbage. 14. Asparagus. 

7. Turnips and mangels. 15. Raspberries and blackberries. 

8. Potatoes. 16. Nursery stock. 
0. Truck crops. 17. Grains. 

10. Corn. 18. Hay. 

Ik 11. Buckwheat. 



CHAPTER VI 

ORCHARD CULTURE 

Three Methods. — Having set out the orchard the next ques- 
tion to be decided is what type of culture it is to receive. On 
this point orchard men are divided into three camps : First, there 
are a few men like INIr. Grant Hitchings, of New York, and I\Ir. 
A. A. Marshall, of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, who practise what 
may be called '' sod culture," that is all the grass grown in the 
orchard is simply cut and allowed to lie on the land as a mulch. 
Of course this mulch becomes thicker year by year, forming a 
better and better protection against the loss of moisture by 
evaporation and as it decays adding humus to the soil. 

Second, there are the men who practise clean cultivation of 
the soil. By far the greatest number of really successful orchard- 
ists belong to this class. There are endless variations in the 
method as practised by different men, but the main features 
would be plowing the orchard in the spring, clean cultivation 
up to mid-summer, and then seeding down to a cover crop. 

Lastly, there is a very large class who have their orchards 
in sod but who can not, by any stretch of the imagination, be said 
to practise sod culture. They simply have their orchards in 
hayfields. Perhaps it is only fair to add that there are a few 
men who have their orchards on relatively heavy land and who 
practise generous fertilizing who are quite successful in raising 
both hay and apples on the same land. But their conditions and 
their characters' are so exceptional that it is dangerous to even 
mention them. 

Methods Vary with Conditions. — There is no question what- 
ever that the type of culture which it is best to adopt varies 
with conditions. Under most conditions cultivation will most 
emphatically give the best results (Fig. 34). And yet there are 
enough orchards where sod culture is practised to show that it 
can be made successful. And there are many cases where cultiva- 

77 



78 



ORCHARD CULTURE 



tion is out of the question and where sod culture must be adopted 
because it is the only rational method that will fit the circum- 
stances. The great difficulty is that this method, to be most 
successful, requires not only peculiar soil conditions but stilJ 
more a peculiar type of man, and it is rare that one finds both 
the man and the conditions on the same farm. 

However, the question is not by any means settled, and 
tharefore it is important to sum up the points in favor of each 
ot these methods as advanced by their advocates. 





Fig. 34. — Clean cultivation in an old roimvaTrrl orchard. With most men and under most 
conditions cultivation will give the best results. 



Sod Culture. — For sod culture the principal arguments 
advanced are : 

1. It is not so expensive a method of caring for the soil. This 
is certainly correct, as the only expense is the cutting of the 
grass in the orchard once or twice a year (Fig. 35). But unless 
it can be shown that with this less expense the grower gets the 
same or nearly the same net returns this is not a very strong 
argument. 

2. The fruit will keep longer. This would apply to apples 
and pears in particular, and is probably also true. The fruit 



SOD CULTURE 



79 



is usually smaller than that grown under cultivation, which 
means a more solid flesh that naturally does not break down so 
soon. While keeping quality is not so important as it was when 
storage facilities were poorer, still it is certainly worth 
considering. 

3. The fruit is more highly colored. Probably this will hold 
good as a general rule because the tree under sod culture is 
likely to ripen up more quickly and the fruit is therefore given 




Fig. 35. — Mowing the grass in a sod orchard. The difficulty comes in resisting the temp- 
tation to rake it and put it in the barn. 

earlier in the season the maturity which favors coloring in the 
autumn. Cultivated orchards sometimes are given too late culti- 
vation or otherwise supplied with too much nitrogen, which 
favors late growth and consequently poor color. Also the foliage 
on trees that are cultivated is usually more dense, which in itself 
will retard coloring by keeping off the sun. 

4. Trees can be headed lower when grown in sod. This may 
or may not be true. If the reasons for low heading already 
given are accepted, it probably makes little difference whether 



80 ORCHARD CULTURE 

the trees are in sod or are cultivated. But with the commonly 
accepted notions about cultivation and height of heading, the 
contention is probably correct. Few people who have done the 
work in an orchard fail to realize the value of the low tree. 

5. There is less washing on side hills. This is an argument 
that appeals to the writer more strongly than almost any other. 
There are thousands of acres all through the best apple growing 
sections of the United States on land which is too steep to admit 
of cultivation on account of the washing of the soil. If these 
lands are to be used for orchards, and they are frequently better 
adapted to orcharding than to any other purpose, they must 
be kept in sod. 

6. The land is in better condition for the spring spraying 
and pruning. In sections where a spring spraying is necessary, 
as with San Jose scale, and where the weather of spring is 
variable, as it is in most orchard countries, this is really an im- 
portant advantage and will appeal to the man who has slopped 
about in the mud in either spraying or pruning. It would not in 
itself justify one in adopting the sod method, but it certainly 
deserves some weight. It is sufficiently difficult to get really 
satisfactoiy work in either pruning or spraying, and anything 
that will assist will be w^elcomed by the man who has had 
experience along these lines. 

7. The windfalls are kept in better condition. This is not of 
much importance with winter apples, but with early varieties and 
with pears it is frequently of decided importance. Men who 
have sod-mulch orchards claim that their windfalls are practically 
as valuable as the hand picked fruit and while the writer does 
not accept this view entirely he does believe that a good soft 
mulch is a great help. 

Some other claims are made, but those mentioned are really 
the most important ones. Those which seem to have the most 
weight are the prevention of washing on hillsides, the fact that 
the fruit is likely to have better color and to keep longer, and 
that the expense of caring for the orchard is less. Of course 
the advocates of cultivation attempt to demolish tliis last argu- 
ment by calling the sod method a cheap affair anyway and by 



CULTIVATION 81 

claiming that their method gives so much more fruit that they 
can afford to have the extra expense. 

Cultivation. — Now let us look at the arguments which are 
advanced in favor of cultivation : 

1. It conserves soil moisture better. It is difficult to see 
how any reasonable man can doubt this. The sod advocates 
attempt to offset it by saying that the sod will so much more 
effectively prevent the rains from running off that they can 
afford to lose some moisture, but this argument does not quite 
'' hold water " when put to a test. As a matter of fact several 
of the arguments in favor of sod, such as better color and better 
keeping quality, are based directly on the fact that the sod 
orchard does not have as much moisture. When one remembers 
how all-important moisture is to the orchard and how frequently 
fruit and trees are damaged from the lack of it, he can appreciate 
the importance of the moisture argument as advanced by the 
cultivation men. It seems to be the very backbone of the cultiva- 
tion side of the controversy. With light soils of poor water- 
holding capacity, this one argument seems about all that it is 
necessary to produce. The soils and locations are relatively few 
where lack of moisture does not, at some time during the year, 
interfere with the best development of a crop of fruit. 

2. It renders soil fertility more available; or perhaps we 
should reverse that and say it renders more soil fertility avail- 
able. It does this by letting in the air and moisture and 
generally by keeping the soil conditions favorable for chemical 
and bacterial action. This is a point not always conceded, but 
the arguments for cultivation seem very conclusive. With the 
high cost of fertility it is certainly a strong argument. 

3. Cultivation permits the use of leguminous cover crops to 
furnish nitrogen for the orchard. This is also a strong argument 
and one not easily disproved. It is quite possible through such 
crops as clovers and soybeans to add all the nitrogen necessary 
to an orchard soil. Since nitrogen is by far the highest priced 
element in fertilizers, a method that '' works while you sleep " 
is certainly welcome to the man who pays the bills. The only 
chance for the sod-culture orchardist in this direction is the 

6 



82 



ORCHAKD CULTURE 



use of clovers in seeding down and these do not as a rule persist 
very long in the orchard sod. 

4. There is less trouble in cultivated orchards from insects, 
notably borers and curculio. Take the example of a young 
orchard in which many trees were found to be attacked by borers. 
It was a cultivated orchard, but several sections of various sizes 
had been allowed to grow up to grass and weeds; that is, had 
become sod sections through poor cultivation. Without exception 

the trees attacked by borers 
were in these weedy patches. 
AVith the large number of in- 
sects which winter either in 
the soil or in trash upon the 
ground it could hardly be 
otherwise than that they 
should flourish best under a 
management which never dis- 
turbs the soil and which 
keeps a constant supply of 
litter to hide in. The curculio 
is especially happy in a sod 
orchard and the "red-bug" 
seems equally so. 

5. There is less danger 
from mice. This is another 
argument which it is difficult 
for the sod-culture advocate 
to disprove ; in fact he usually 
frankly admits it and puts 
some sort of guard about his trees to protect them. An orchard 
in the Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia, may be cited as an illustra- 
tion. The owner left some grass in one corner of his orchard 
one winter and the next spring every tree in the acre and a 
quarter was completely girdled by mice. They were all bridge 
grafted and not a tree was lost. When visited ten years after, 
each tree stood on stilts, as shown in Figure 36. But one might 
not be so fortunate as this in every case and even with protectors 




Fig. 36. — A tree girdled by mice and saved 
by bridge grafting. This is entirely practical 
and any good grafter can do the work. 



METHOD OF CULTIVATION 83 

there is always danger of accidents. There are sections where 
mice are never troublesome, and in these localities the argument 
would not hold. 

6. The cultivated orchard yields more fruit. This is a diffi- 
cult point to prove and probably never will be proved to the 
satisfaction of the best sod-culture advocates. General observa- 
tion and still more orchard surveys have sho^vn that, with the 
rank and file, cultivation gives far better yields. After all it is 
the average that counts. A system may be ever so good with the 
exceptional man and if it falls down with the average man it is 
better not to attempt it, for most of us are '^ average." 

7. Cultivated orchards yield larger and better apples. This 
is another point which will never be admitted by the sod culturist 
and doubtless is not always true. But as in No. 6 it certainly is 
true with the rank and file of orchard men. 

Removal of Hay Crop. — There is another argument on this 
question of '' cultivation vs. sod culture," which seems very im- 
portant and yet which is used by both sides to support their 
contentions. This is the fact that most men will not leave the 
hay in the orchard. The sod men say: " We are not talking 
about the man w^ho mows the grass and puts it in his bam but 
about the man who cuts the grass and lets it lie in the orchard." 
The advocates of cultivation say: " We admit that sod culture 
gives good results when properly carried out, but what is the use 
of discussing a method which only a very few men will carry out, 
but in which the vast majority are doomed to failure." This 
argument is the strongest one in the whole list and it is the one 
which makes many good orchardists very strong believers in 
cultivation. It must be admitted without argument that some 
of the men who use sod in their orchards are among the most 
successful growers. But for the rank and file of orchard men, 
and particularly for that great section of the fruit growing 
fraternity who also keep some stock, it seems much better to 
*' remove temptation " and not to grow any hay in the orchard. 

Method of Cultivation. — If, then, we are to practise cultiva- 
tion in the orchard, what methods shall we use 1 Stated briefly 
the method most generally satisfactory is to plow the land, or 



84 ORCHARD CULTURE 

otherwise stir it, as early in the spring as the soil is in good 
condition; then to cultivate it frequently up to about July 1, 
when the orchard is sown to some cover crop which is allowed to 
remain on the land until the following spring. This seems to be 
a simple program and if the proper implements are available to 
work w^ith, and attention is given to the details, there is usually 
little difficulty in carrying it out. Yet there are several things 
that it is very desirable to look after carefully. To begin with, 
the land ought to be plowed, and cultivation ought to be gotten 
under way, just as early as possible in the spring. In fact, there 
are some men who advocate and practise very late fall plowing 
of the orchard. 

Fall Plowing. — There are several good arguments in support 
of this practice. Here are some which have considerable w^eight. 

1. Where land has been plowed in the autumn it can bo 
worked earlier in the spring, not only because the operation of 
plowing is out of the way but because plowed land will dry out 
more quickly. It is always desirable to get the soil in good 
condition and to push the trees as early in the season as possible. 
Fall plowing is particularly desirable on rather heavy soils, be- 
cause it is so late in the spring before they are in proper condition 
to be plowed. 

2. It frequently, in fact usually, happens that there is less 
work for the teams in the autumn than in the spring. Often 
it is even somewhat difficult on an orchard farm to find enough 
team work in the autumn, and if even a part of the orchards can 
be plowed it keeps the teams busy and gives the comfortable 
assurance that at least this much w^ork will be out of the way when 
the spring rush comes on. To the man who has done his orchard 
work in an office, this may not seem to be a strong argument, but 
any one who really gets out and does the work, or who even 
"bosses the job," will find that he frequently has to modify 
his plans and theories to suit the case in hand. In particular he 
will find that the problem of keeping his teams constantly at work 
is by no means an easy one to solve. Too often it is solved 
by allowing the teams to stand in the barn, which usually means 
that the owner has not realized that there is any problem. 



DISC HARROWING 85 

3. Fall plowing disturbs a number of insects that pass the 
winter in the ground. The apple maggot or railroad worm and 
the spring canker worm, in particular, pass the winter in the 
soil in the pupa stage, and relatively few of them will survive 
if the land is fall plowed. In any case where a bad attack of 
either of these insects is likely to occur it would seem that fall 
plowing might be justified for this reason alone. 

4. It gets the old and diseased leaves under the ground where 
they will not be a source of infection for the new leaves when 
they come out in the spring. In apple scab, in particular, it has 
been shown that the disease passes the winter on the old leaves 
and if these can be disposed of it will aid materially in the fight 
for clean fruit. Where the plowing is delayed until spring most 
of the leaves will be blown off the land into the adjoining grass 
or hedge-rows where they will produce an abundance of spores. 
If the plowing is done in the autumn the bulk of them will be 
still in the orchard and will be turned under, thereby securing 
just so much extra humus as well as getting rid of a prolific 
source of infection. 

The two principal arguments used against fall plowing are 
that the soil is more likely to wash and that there is more danger 
of injury to the roots of the trees by freezing. The first of 
these is undoubtedly correct and is a sufficient reason for not 
practising fall plowing in a great many cases on hillsides. 
Still on many farms there are one or more blocks which do not 
have slope enough to be damaged in this w^ay and on most 
farms '' every little helps," especially in the spring. 

On the freezing argument there is need of more light. It 
would be relatively easy, with soil thermometers, to determine 
whether the ground will freeze more deeply in a plowed orchard 
than in one under sod or a cover crop. If the land were har- 
rowed down at all it is very doubtful if the plowed land would 
allow the frost to enter any more deeply. 

Disc Harrowing. — Of course it is not always necessary that 
the land should be plowed. On lightish lands in particular it is 
often possible to fit them in the spring with some type of disc 
harrow. One of these disc harrows, if set so as to reach its 
greatest depth, will stir the soil enough. Where soils can be so 



86 ORCHARD CULTURE 

handled it is usually a more expeditious metbod. If the disc 
harrow is run through the orchard in one direction and then the 
land is allowed to stand a few days, to be followed by a discing 
in the other direction, twice over the land will usually put it 
in good condition for the spring-tooth or some other harrow. 

Early Tillage Affects Moisture. — The desirability of fitting 
the land as early in the spring as possible is very frequently 
overlooked by the orchard man, who has on the land a crop of 
clover or some other crop which lives through the winter. He 
thinks that he ought to let it grow for a time in order to get 
additional humus to plow under, and the temptation to get all 
he can in the humus line frequently gets him into serious diffi^ 
culties. Of course it is expected that when the land is plowed 
in the spring a certain number of roots will be destroyed by 
the plows, but if the land is plowed each year the roots so cut 
will never have attained any great size and they will be replaced 
at once by new feeding roots which will come up into the soil 
which was turned over. Moreover when this is done in the early 
spring the tree will not feel the temporary loss of moisture, be- 
cause at this time of year the loss of moisture by transpiration 
from the tree is relatively very small. 

It ought also to be emphasized, in this connection, that the 
little root hairs which do most of the actual absorbing of soil 
moisture do not persist over winter but a new set is developed 
each spring. Now suppose that the orchard man, in his zeal to 
get extra humus, allows his cover crop to grow until June 
before plowing. In the first place this will seriously exhaust the 
soil moisture by the extra drafts made upon it to grow the cover 
crop ; then an immense number of feeding roots and root hairs 
will have been developed in this surface layer of the soil which 
is turned over by plow. The loss of these roots, or rather of the 
soil moisture which they are taking in, while it would not have 
been felt by the tree in the least had it occurred in the early 
spring, is now very seriously felt, since the tree is in full leaf 
and giving off to the air an immense amount of moisture daily. 
If we add to this the further fact that this heavy layer of cover 
crop, both the autumn growth and the spring growth, interferes 



THE TIME TO STOP CULTIVATION 87 

with the transference of water from the subsoil into the furrow 
slice which was turned over, and that therefore a considerable 
time must elapse before new feeding roots can be established 
in this surface layer, we, may see at least some of the objections 
to deferring plowing until summer in order to grow a cover crop. 

After-tillage.^FoUowing this first " fitting " of the land 
there is a period of cultivating. This period varies in length 
with different men, all the way from not over a month to three or 
even four months. The principal objects of this cultivation are 
to keep down the weeds and to conserve the soil moisture, and 
individual conditions are going to very decidedly modify not only 
its length but its thoroughness and the implements necessary to 
do it. As a rule the land ought to be gone over every ten days 
or two weeks, but if one is so unfortunate as to have a bad case 
of witch grass to contend with, or if the season is especially dry, 
or the land, either from lack of humus or from any other 
cause, is not in condition to hold moisture, then it may be de- 
sirable to cultivate oftener. In particular it is well to get over 
all the orchard just as soon as possible after a rain, unless of 
course it is a rainy spell. Even then it is important to start the 
cultivator just as soon as the rainy spell is over. For most of this 
cultivation very shallow stirring of the soil is all that is neces- 
sajy. It is often the practice after the land is once gotten into 
shape in the spring to use some harrow of the spring-tooth type 
for most of the work. The one shown in Figure 42 is admirably 
suited to this part of the work and will cover more land in a day 
than anything that was ever turned loose in an orchard. The 
acme harrow is also excellent. 

The time to stop cultivation, as has been suggested, varies 
greatly with different men. A rather short, sharp campaign is 
usually best. Get the orchard under cultivation as early as 
possible, make the cultivation thorough, and then stop it early 
and sow in the cover crop. It is rare that it needs to be con- 
tinued after the first of July. Several of the disadvantages of 
cultivation may be largely overcome by seeding down early. On 
land which does not hold moisture well and with a heavy crop of 
fruit on the trees and a dry season, late culture may be desirable 



88 ORCHARD CULTURE 

and even necessary. It must be remembered that the longer the 
sowing of the cover crop is delayed the less growth there will 
be of that crop, and consequently the less humus there will be to 
plow under the following year, which in turn will make the land 
suffer more from drouth. In other words, by prolonging cultiva- 
tion we save moisture for that year at the expense of future 
years. 

Hand Work. — ^While thorough cultivation in the orchard as 
a whole is desirable, it is doubtful how important it is, in older 
orchards at least, that the soil close about the trees should be 
stirred. And certainly it adds very greatly to the expense if one 
tries to remove all the weeds and grass from close around every 
tree. It means hand labor and a good deal of it, and as soon 
as we resort to hand work we raise very decidedly the cost of 
caring for the orchard. If, for any reason, it is thought to be 
absolutely necessary to do this work, however, then as much as 
possible should be done with the grape-hoe shown in Figure 43. 
It is surprising how much this implement will do. The balance 
may be cleared out by using a heav;>^ hoe or a light mattock or 
grub hoe. 

Damage During Cultivation. — One of the annoying things 
about cultivating an orchard is the amount of injury that is 
pretty certain to be done to the trees by the harness and the 
whiffletrees and the cultivators. Even with the best of men and 
teams a certain amount of this damage is sure to occur. "With 
poorer men and less steady teams there is enough of it to 
drive the most ardent believer in cultivation to sod culture. 
Patches of bark will be scraped off the trunk by the cultivator, 
the tips of branches chewed off by the horses, or the bark raked 
off the branches by the hames of the harness. "While one is always 
more or less at the mercy of the teamster, a good many things 
may be done to help him to avoid injuring the trees. The horses 
may be muzzled, and harnesses with low hames ought always to 
be used. We may even resort with great satisfaction to the 
tugless harness shown in Figure 40. Then short whiffletrees and 
doubletrees ought always to be used. It will avoid many a scar 
if the outside ends of the whiffletrees are padded with burlap 



DAMAGE DURING CULTIVATION 



89 



5 g 



o 5 

8 3- 




90 ORCHARD CULTURE 

or an old sack. If extension types of implements are used, the 
team, at least, will be kept well away from the trees. These 
extension implements may be either those like the light draft 
harrow shown in Figare 42, which cover a wide space and con- 
sequently avoid the necessity of the team getting near the trees ; 
or, if these are not available, the two sections of an ordinary 
disc or spring-tooth harrow may be separated by using a long 
bar or evener. In the latter case there is, of course, a strip of 
land in the centre each time which is not worked, but if the 
space between the sections is not wider than one of them the 
strip is cultivated on the return trip. 

Sowing the Cover Crop. — When the time finally arrives for 
sowing the cover crop it may be sown just previous to the last 
cultivation which will cover the seed, except in the case of clover 
and turnips which are sown just after the last cultivation and 
either left for the next rain to cover or else lightly brushed in 
with a brush harrow. 

It is always a satisfaction to see block after block of the 
orchard seeded down to the cover crop. One feels that another 
good job is finished and trouble (at least that particular trouble) 
is over for the season. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Outline briefly three plans of orchard management as regards culture. 

2. What are the principal points in favor of sod culture? 

3. Give the arguments in favor of the cultivation of orchards. 

4. Outline a year's treatment of the soil in a cultivated orchard. 

5. Give several reasons for and against plowing orchards in late fall. 

6. Discuss the use of the disc harrow in orchards. 

7. Describe the effects of early spring tillage. 

8. At what time during the growing season should the cultivation cease? 

Why? 

9. What hand work, if any, is to be recommended in the cultivation of 

orchards ? 

10. How is the cover crop started? 

11. Is sod-mulch, clean culture or a modified method used in your section? 



CHAPTER YII 

ORCHARD IMPLEMENTS 

It is a great convenience in cultivating an orchard if a man 
can have just the right implement for each particular part in the 
work and for every special combination of conditions. That is 
one advantage which the large orchard has over the small one. 
With only a few acres of orchard to care for the owner feels as 
Ihough he ought to get along with the smallest equipment possi- 
ble unless he has use for the implements in his other farm work. 
It is possible to care for an orchard with only a plow and a 
harrow, in fact he miglit even cut out the plow if his harrow were 
of the disc variety. But with a large orchard, the owner feels 
more free to add to his equipment, and if the orchard is suffi- 
2iently large he can justify quite an extensive array of imple- 
ments. This is a doctrine which, like the doctrine of a fairly 
large list of varieties, it is easy to carry too far, and any man 
Lhould keep the list down Ioav enough so that he at least has room 
for every implement in the tool shed. 

But since there are a great many orchard implements on the 
market and since slightly varying conditions may make a differ- 
ent one more effective than any other, it seems worth while to 
discuss a few of the principal types. 

Plows. — As already suggested it is not always necessary to 
plow the orchard, but it frequently is, and when one has to plow 
he wants a good implement. There are about four things to be 
considered in selecting an orchard plow : First, the draft ; second, 
how close it can be run to the trees ; third, how much danger there 
is that it will damage the trees; and, fourth, its effect on the 
furrow slice, that is, how thoroughly it will pulverize the land as 
it turns it over. Any orchard plow should have a fairly abrupt 
mold board in order to pulverize as well as to invert the furrow 
slice. The type of plow which merely inverts the furrow slice 
without breaking it up at all will make a pretty looking field, 

91 



92 ORCHARD IMPLEMENTS 

that may win in a plowing match where beauty is the main 
thing, but it certainly does not leave the soil in anything like 
as good condition as the mold board with an abrupt turn. The 
latter is as good as the former plus one or two harrowings. 

Types of Plows. — There are four or five types of plows 
usually available to select from, any one of which is fairly satis- 
factory. First, there is the ordinary ivalking plow. This will 
do good work, and if the orchard is small it may be the best plow 
to choose. The chief disadvantages of this plow are that it is 
necessary to make a back-furrow and a dead furrow to each 
row of trees and that it is not possible to get quite as close to the 
trees as with some other plows, but neither one of these is a 
serious objection. 

The former difficulty may be obviated by selecting a hillside 
walking plow. This is reversible, so that all the furrows are 
thrown in one direction. The plowman simply begins at one 
side of the orchard imd goes back and forth, making neither 
dead nor back-furrows, until the entire orchard is plowed. The 
usual custom in using such a plow is to throw the land down 
the hill, but it is mucli better, unless the slope is very steep, to 
throw it up the hill. Hillside land which, is cultivated will work 
down the hill fast enough without any deliberate assistance from. 
the owner. 

The principal objection to this plow is that it does not do as 
good work as the ordinary type of walking plow just mentioned. 
This is not a very serious difference, but it may be avoided by 
using the third type of plow, the double-sulky plow. This is a 
wheeled implement with two plows side by side, one a right- 
hand and the other a left-hand plow. It works exactly the same 
as the hillside plow but does a little better work on the soil. 
One can not, however, get quite so close to the trees with it. 
For preparing a field to set an orchard on it is the finest thing 
yet invented. 

Orchard Gang Plow. — We have next the small orchard gang 
plow shown in Figure 38. This consists of three eight-inch plows 
and will therefore move twenty-four inches in width at one time, 
which means getting over the orchard in a huriy. It is built so 



ORCHARD DISC PLOW 



93 



as to get very close to the trees whether one is plowing towards 
them or away from them, and the draft is surprisingly small 
considering the surface covered. The writer has never seen an 
accurate draft test of this plow, but, in trying it out in orchard 
practice as compared with the two types of walking plows just 
mentioned, it did not seem that the team pulled any harder 
with this gang throwing twenty- four inches than with a fourteen- 
inch plow of the other sorts. Of course these small plows will 




Fig. 38. — A gang of three eight-inch plows. One of the best implements for orchard use. 
The draft is light and it covers a lot of land in a day. 

not throw a very deep furrow, but this is seldom wanted in an 
orchard. Three or four inches is usually ample. At the present 
writing, with only one season's experience to base the opinion 
on, this little plow seems to stand at the head for straight 
orchard work. 

Orchard Disc Plow.— Lastly we have what is known as the 
California orchard plow, shown in Figure 39. As will be seen it 
consists of four large discs at one end of a long beam. The 
great advantage of this implement is that it does very thorough 
work and one can get very close to the trees with it and still 



94 



ORCHARD IMPLEMENTS 



have the team far enough away to avoid all danger of injury 
from that source. For working out the Aveeds and grass close 
about the trees it is certainly admirable. 

Harrows. — Starting with the most deeply cutting types of 
harrows we have the disc and the cutaway. These are much 
alike, the only difference being that the former has a smooth 
edge to the discs while in the latter the edges are notched. It 




Fig. 39. — A disc plow for orchard work. An excellent implement for working close to the 
trees without getting the team near enough to do any damage. 

is claimed that these latter will cut into the soil more deeply, 
which is probably true. Either one is excellent for working in 
the orchard, and as already suggested may frequently be sub- 
stituted for the plow in getting the land in shape in the spring. 
Even in the later cultivation it is well to have one of these 
harrows available for use in case the weeds get a bad start in 
any corner of the orchard. 

Next to the disc type of harrow comes the spring 4 ooth, and 
it ought to follow the disc in the season's work. It will pull the 
furrows to pieces and pulverize the soil well, following either 



CULTIVATORS 95 

the plow or the disc, and some type of spring-tooth harrow ought 
to be in any collection of orchard implements that is supposed to 
be at all complete. There is one objection to the ordinary spring- 
tooth harrow for young orchards and that is that it is so likely 
to catch on a stone or some other obstacle and jump against the 
trees. Careful driving will help to prevent this difficulty, and 
of course it does not apply in land free from stones and other 
obstacles. Another objection which has been made to the spring- 
tooth and which may be worth mentioning here, is that where 
an orchard has patches of witch (quack) grass in it this harrow 
will drag small pieces to other parts of the orchard and drop 
them, thus helping to spread this noxious weed. This is prob- 
ably a legitimate objection but can not offset the many advantages 
of this type of tooth either on harrows or cultivators. 

We have next the acme harrow shown in Figure 40. The 
action of this machine is to cut into the soil behind and to crush 
the clods in front. Where the soil conditions are right it will do 
as much work as anything in an orchard. But it will not work 
en land which is either very stony or which has much trash on it. 
Barring these limitations it is, an excellent implement and will 
leave the soil in as good condition as anything on the list. 

Lastly among harrows we have the spike-tooth or smoothing 
type. This is not considered a very important implement in the 
orchard. It is especially designed to leave the surface fine and 
smooth and occasionally such a tool may be needed, particularly 
for covering some kinds of cover crops, but this would be the 
first thing to strike out if one were trying to cut down the list 
of implements. 

Cultivators. — It is difficult to draw the line between cultiva- 
tors and harrows because many implements are used for both 
purposes. In the classification here given the cultivators are 
used primarily for cultivating and are more under the control 
of the operator than the harrows. 

We have first the implement shown in Figure 41, and knowTi 
technically on the market as the orchard cultivator. The teeth 
are entirely rigid and it is designed especially for use in 
getting the land in shape and levelling it, after it has been 



96 



ORCHARD IMPLEMENTS 



plowed or disced. The chief objection to it is that the frame is 
very rigid, so that it does not always adapt itself to irregularities 




Fig. 40. — The acme harrow. An excellent orchard cultivator when soil conditions are 
good, but stones and trash interfere with it seriously. 

Fig. 41. — An orchard cultivator with heavy, rigid teeth. An excellent implement for heavy 
work, either where the land is rough or the weeds are large. 

in the surface, one end perhaps working too deeply and the other 
not deep enough. On the other hand this very rigidity makes it 
effective in pulling the land into shape, taking down the high. 



CULTIVATORS 



97 



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I'l 



5 t» 
o 
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§^ 

a o 
5. P 

^ B; 
2 o 

Pr a, 

a. a 
^ a 






oq- 



^5 




98 ORCHARD IMPLEMENTS 

places and scraping* them into the low ones. And it will dig into 
a patch of witch grass or other troublesome weed in a way to dis- 
courage the intruder. 

Next is the light-draft orchard harrow shown in Figure 42. 
It is certainly well named, as the draft is very light considering 
the land it covers and there are few if any implements that will 
get over as many acres of orchard in a day as this one. It will 
cheer the heart of any man with a lot of work to do. You can send 
a man out into a ten acre block of orchard in the morning and he 
is back at noon with the job done. And it does good work, too. 




1^^.^ 



Fig. 43. — A grape-hoe at work in a young orchard. An excellent implement for clearing 
out the weeds along the tree row. It will do the work of a dozen men. 



Its shortcoming is that the land has to be in pretty good condition 
for it to do good work. The teeth are rather light and will not 
work well on rough land, but once the land has been put in good 
condition in the spring it will certainly take care of it well and 
cheaply. There are two wings which enable it to work close 
to the trees without bringing the horses near them. A light 
lever attached to each of the four sections enables the operator 
to dump any trash that may have caught on the teeth. 



QUESTIONS 99 

A combination implement known as a grape-Jioe is shown in 
Figure 43. It can be used either in the capacity of a plow or a 
cultivator, by changing the attachment, and is designed to save 
hand labor by working close to the trees. With the right man to 
run it, it will certainly do what it was designed to do. There 
is a disc for steering it, and a good husky man who has had a 
little practice in running it w^ill come as near cleaning out all the 
weeds from about the trees as it is possible to do with anything 
short of a hand hoe. No orchard of any size can afford to be 
without one. 

Then there is the common V-shaped cultivator. This is not 
strictly necessary to care for the orchard, but as soon as any of 
the companion crops are planted it becomes the main dependence. 
It is usually best to have two of them with teeth of different sizes. 
The large are needed for heavy work when one is unfortunate 
enough to get behindhand, and the small for land in better shape. 
In fact some orchardists have three of them in the equipment, 
ranging from the small, spike-toothed variety up to one with 
five good-sized shovels. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What advantages have large orchards over small ones in the matter 

of implements? 

2. Why should the plow have an abrupt mold-board? 

3. What may be said for and against the ordinary walking plow for 

orchard work? 

4. What advantage has the hillside plow? 

5. Describe a double-sulky plow and tell when you would prefer it. 
G. Give the advantages of the orchard gang plow. 

7. What is a " California orchard plow '' ? Give several points in its 

favor. 

8. Compare the various types of harrows for use in orchards. 

9. What types of cultivators are suitable for use in orchards? 
10. What orchard implements are most common in your section? 



CHAPTER VIII 
FERTILIZERS 

The proper fertilizing of a fruit plantation is an especially 
difficult point to determine experimentally, because it is so 
difficult to determine and to control the conditions surrounding 
the roots of trees. When it has been determined by experiment 
what the best treatment for a particular orchard is, this informa- 
tion is of relatively little value to the owners of other orchards 
because the many different factors of ' ' soil condition ' ' are likely 
to vary widely. In this respect the fertilizer problem stands 
ahead of any other. For example, if it is a question of what to 
spray with, the conditions surrounding the leaves of the trees 
are so similar that what is best for Brown's trees will probably 
also be best for Smith's trees, though he may live five or ten 
or even one hundred miles away. But the fertilizer question is 
so complex, and conditions change so decidedly in going even 
a short distance, that v/hat is good in the way of fertilizers for 
Brown's trees may not be good for Smith's though his orchard 
may be just across the road. 

Doubtless further experiment will throw more light on the 
subject, and we may hope that the time will come when we shall 
have a generally accepted scheme of orchard fertilization. In 
the meantime we must use what evidence we have and do our 
best to gain further light for ourselves by a little personal 
experimenting. 

The best orchardists believe in fertilizing and practise it in 
private orchards. But the evidence on the subject is meagre 
and conflicting. Three lines of reasoning should lead to the 
adoption of this attitude until" such time as more authoritative 
evidence on the subject is available. 

Trees Exhaust Soil. — It has been very definitely shown that 

apple orchards take out of the soil far more fertilizer material 

year by year than ordinary farm crops do. Professor I. P. 

Roberts has calculated that the twenty-year record of fertilizer 

100 



EXPERIMENTAL PROOF 101 

value of an acre of wheat and an acre of apples would be as 

follows : 

Wheat, grain and straw, 20 years $128.23 

Apples, fruit and leaves, 20 years 207.45 

This makes no account of the large amount of fertilizer 
material which is each year locked up in the roots, trunk, and 
branches of the tree. Now we must admit at once that the tree 
forages much more widely than the annual crop in search of 
food, but even when this is considered it seems reasonably cer- 
tain that an orchard exhausts the soil faster than the wheat 
crop. It must be remembered further that there is no chance 
for rotation of crops with the orchard, but the same elements in 
the same ratio are taken out year after year. When we remem- 
ber still further that no man w^io makes any pretense to being a 
farmer would think of trying to grow a wheat crop many years 
without fertilizers, it seems very reasonable that the orchard 
man should follow the practice of the general farmer. 

Best Orchardists Fertilize. — This brings us to the second 
reason for thinking that orchards ought to be fertilized, and that 
is that the best fruit men practise fertilizing. Go into any 
orchard section and you will find that the most progressive and 
successful growers, as a rule, are the men who fertilize highly. 
Usually the man succeeds in proportion as he fertilizes. The 
man who fertilizes year after year, whether he has a crop of fruit 
on his trees or not, is the man who usually has a crop. The man 
who is noted in a section as applying fertilizers in large quantity 
is usually also noted as a man who harvests bumper crops. This 
is not conclusive proof, because these men also care well for their 
orchards in other ways. But it is very suggestive, particularly 
the fact that the generous feeder usually succeeds better than 
the moderate feeder. 

Experimental Proof. — The third point which has con- erted 
many to fertilizing their orchards is the fact that numerous 
experiments have shown such marked benefits from fertilizing. 
Of course there have been experiments that have not shown any 
benefit, but when, in a series of experiments, a fertilized block 
gives several times as much fruit as an unfertilized block, the 



102 FERTILIZERS 

two having been treated in exactly the same way except in the 
matter of fertilizers, it is difficult to avoid drawing the conclu- 
sion that the fertilizer is responsible for the difference. In the 
orchard fertilizer experiments at the Massachusetts Agricultural 
Experiment Station (with which experiments the writer has had 
no connection) the thing which most impresses any one who 
studies the results and examines the trees, is the extremely poor 
showing made by the trees which had no fertilizer. We may 
disagree decidedly as to the relative merits of muriate and sul- 
fate of potash, or as to whether bone meal is best as a source of 
phosphoric acid, but none can escape the conclusion that under 
the conditions of this experiment any fertilizer combination used 
was greatly to he preferred to no fertilizer at all. 

Influence of Nitrogen. — With so much difference in opinion 
as to what forms of fertilizer, if any, are required, it is hardly 
to be expected that there should be very general agreement as to 
the particular effect of the dift'erent fertilizer elements, yet all 
are agreed that nitrogen, in any form, is likely to produce rapid 
wood growth with large, dark green leaves and long terminal 
shoots. If the application of nitrogen is carried to excess, the 
wood growth is often made at the expense of fruit, though up to 
a certain point nitrogen is apt to increase the yield. It almost 
always decreases color, principally because the fruit, like the 
leaves, is large in size and does not reach maturity until late in 
the season. The heavy foliage also reduces the color by shutting 
oft' the sunlight. 

Influence of Potash. — It is known that potash enters into 
the fruit acids and is a very large part (more than 50 per cent) 
of the ash of fruits. Potash has also been credited, and rightly 
so, with increasing the color in fruits. This effect is probably 
produced by the influence which potash has on the general 
growth of the tree and does not come as a direct influence ; that 
is, potash will not change the green color of apples to a red color 
as nitrogen will often change the yellow color of leaves to a 
green color. In any event fairly liberal applications of some 
form of potash are generally made to bearing orchards if the 
owner believes in fertilizing. 



FORMS TO USE 103 

Influence of Phosphoric Acid. — The exact part which phos- 
phoric acid plays in orchard development seems not to have been 
so well worked out, at least there is less agreement on the sub- 
ject. It is certainly important in seed development and prob- 
ably in the ripening of the fruit, and some men have even 
given it credit for improvements in the color of fruit, though this 
is not very generally accepted. If it occurs it is probably as a 
result of the control which this element exerts on the growth of 
the tree. Maturity and sunlight are certainly the two most 
important influences in producing color in fruits. 

Forms to Use. — If we are to use fertilizers we have the choice 
of several forms of each one. 

For nitrogen we have nitrate of soda, sulfate of ammonia, 
tankage, cyanamid and nitrate of potash. Nitrate of soda is prob- 
ably used more than any other form and has the advantage that it 
is very quickly available. It is also a reasonably cheap form. 

Sulfate of ammonia acts more slowly than the nitrate because 
it has to be changed in the soil into the nitrate form before it can 
be used by the plant. It also has a tendency to make the soil 
sour because it leaves behind the sulfuric acid. Still, it is fairly 
popular, and if lime is used to take care of the acid, it is good 
to use in a combination where a long season of growth is wanted. 

Tankage is still more slowly available and is usually reason- 
able in the price per unit. It is used v/ith particular satisfaction 
on young trees or in any situation where a relatively long period 
of growth is desired. AA^ith young trees tankage in combination 
with nitrate of soda has given very much better results than the 
nitrate alone, even when two applications of the latter were given. 

The nitrate of potash is hardly worth discussing because it is 
so seldom that one can get it. It carries about the same percent- 
age of nitrogen as the nitrate of soda and in addition about 
as much potash as the muriate. It is thus a very high grade 
fertilizer, the highest that we have. It has the disadvantage 
that it requires the application of both nitrogen and potash at one 
time, but usually this is desirable. 

We ought to add to the forms of nitrogen "cyanamid," the 
newly developed combination of lime with atmospheric nitrogen. 



104 FERTILIZERS 

It has not yet been in use long enough for its qualities to be 
tested, but it has this to recommend it, that it is relatively cheap. 

Among phosphoric acid fertilizers are bone meal, rock phos- 
phate, and basic slag. Bone meal is an old favorite among 
fertilizer users. Within recent years basic slag, or Thomas phos- 
phate powder, a by-product produced in the manufacture of 
steel, has been used a great deal by orchard men. It has the 
advantage of carrying a considerable percentage of lime, but this 
has been reduced recently by changes in the manufacturing 
process. Acid phosphates or superphosphates are made from 
both bone and rock phosphates by treating them with sulfuric 
acid. This takes up a part of the lime, rendering the phosphoric 
acid more available. The superphosphates are specially useful 
with young trees where the roots are extending rapidly. They 
are the only form in which phosphoric acid should be applied 
to orchards in sod, since in such orchards one must depend on 
the fertilizer dissolving and being washed into the soil. 

Two forms of potash are in common use, the muriate and the 
sulfate, the latter coming in both high and low grade. Probably 
the muriate is more generally used than any other form at the 
present time. It has the great advantage of being cheaper than 
sulfate, but it also has a tendency to render the soil acid by 
taking out the lime. This latter tendency can be overcome of 
course by adding lime, but that means one more thing to look 
after. The low grade sulfate carries about half the amount of 
actual potash that the high grade does, but it also has a large 
amount of magnesia, which many consider an advantage. There 
is the same objection to it that there is to any low grade fer- 
tilizer, viz., that it costs more per unit of plant food to transport 
it and to handle it in the orchard. It is perhaps best to use the 
high grade sulfate altogetlier until such time as it may be shown 
that some other form is better. 

There is no very definite experimental data to show that lime 
is beneficial to orchard trees, but there is a very general impres- 
sion among orchard men that it is an excellent plan to apply lime 
to orchards. So far as this idea has any real backing, it prob- 
ably rests on the fact that limestone districts in fruit regions 



FERTILIZER FORMULAS 105 

are usually noted for their fine fruit. But quite aside from its 
effect on the trees, the use of lime in orchards is probably war- 
ranted on account of its effect as the cover crop which is grown. 
Most of these crops are benefited by lime, and for some of them, 
notably the beginners, on some soils lime is absolutely essential 
for a good growth. On the lighter types of soils the ground 
limestone is to be preferred, while for the heavier soils the burned 
lime is better. On many soils an application of a half ton to a 
ton per acre will be found to give excellent returns in improved 
growth of cover crops. On one orchard block, the soil of which 
the writer had tested, it was shown that it would require five 
tons per acre to neutralize the upper foot of soil. Of course this 
amount was not put on in any one season but a yearly application 
of a ton was used with markedly beneficial results. 

In ordering lime of either type it will be found best to pay 
the extra cost of having it come in bags rather than in bulk, as it 
is impossible to handle the latter type with any degree of com- 
fort when there is any wind. 

Fertilizer Formulas. — It may perhaps be helpful to include 
in this chapter a few fertilizer formulas which are actually in use 
by some of our leading orchard men. 

Mr. George A. Drew, of Greenwich, Connecticut, has the fol- 
lowing formula, which is used at the rate of 400 pounds to 800 
pounds per acre according to the condition of the soil. His trees 
are cultivated. 

125 pounds blood 16 per cent 

200 pounds tankage 10 per cent Am. 20 per cent B. P. Lime 

450 pounds bone 4^2 per cent Am. 50 per cent B. P. Lime 

650 pounds basic slag 16 per cent 

420 pounds sulphate potash 48 per cent 

155 pounds filler 
2000 

Mr. L. F. Priest, of Gleasondale, Massachusetts, grows his 
orchard in sod. He says : ' ' Our best trees have a good dressing 
of stable manure in the fall and the following spring 600 pounds 
of slag and 200 pounds of sulfate of potash per acre for the 
largest trees, the smaller ones receiving less. All the hay we 
can spare is used for mulch. ' ' 



106 



FERTILIZERS 



Munson and Frost, of Littleton, Massachusetts, use the fol- 
lowing formula on their bearing apple orchard: 500 pounds 
basic slag, and 225 pounds high grade sulfate of potash. 

Mr. A. C. Starr, of Starrs Point, Nova Scotia, writes: "We 
use all the barn manure we have to spare, and we usually get over 
them once in about four years, giving a fair application. In 
addition we apply each year 400 to 500 pounds of ground bone 
per acre and 200 to 300 pounds of muriate of potash. ' ' 

Professor J. P. Stewart, of the Pennsylvania Experiment 
Station, who has given a great deal of study to this question 
of fertilizing orchards, gives the following table of fertilizers 
to be used while determining by experiment what the orchard 
actually needs : 

Table III. — A General Fertilizer for Apple Orchards. 

(Amounts per Acre for Bearing Trees) 



Nitrogen 30 lbs. (N) 


Phosphoric Acid 50 lbs 
(P2O6) 


Potash 25 to 50 lbs. 
(K2O) 


Carried in — 


Carried in — 


Carried in — 


100 lbs. nitrate soda and 


350 lbs. acid phosphate 


50 to 100 lbs. mm-iate 


150 lbs. dried blood 


or m 
200 lbs. bone meal 


or m 


or in 
150 lbs. sulfate of am- 
monia 


or in 
300 lbs. basic slag 


100 to 200 lbs. low 
firade sulfate 



Application. — In applying fertilizers it is much better to use 
a fertilizer spreader when possible. Of course where the trees 
are young, and the fertilizer is therefore spread over only a 
part of the surface, it is usually necessary to put it on by ?Land. 

Insoluble materials, or those slowly soluble, like bone meal 
and basic slag, should be applied before the land is plowed or 
should be otherwise thoroughly incorporated with the soil. Those 
which dissolve readily, like muriate and sulfate of potash or 
nitrate of soda, may be spread upon the surface and will wash 
in with the first rain. 

The potash and phosphoric acid salts are not readily washed 
out of the soil and may therefore be applied at almost any season 
of the year, though the orchardist should avoid a time whe^i 
there are likely to be dashing rains which will carry them off 



APPLICATION 107 

in the surface water. But nitrogen is very likely to escape and 
should be applied after growth has started so that it may be 
taken up quickly. 

The fertilizing of the various kinds of fruit trees will vary 
somewhat, but there will probably not be any greater variation 
than might occur between two different varieties of the same kind 
of fruit or between two blocks of the same fruit on different 
soils. For example, the Wagener and Gravenstein apples will 
probably vary nearly as much in their fertilizer requirements 
as will the general classes of apples and peaches. And two 
blocks of Baldwin apple trees on very dift'erent soils may need 
quite as different fertilizers as a block of peaches and a block 
of apples. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare orchards with wheat in their exhaustion of soil fertility. 

2. What have experiments proved in regard to orchard fertilizers? 

3. What are the effects of nitrogenous fertilizers? 

4. Give the effects of fertilizers rich in potash. 

5. What is the influence of phosphoric acid on fruit trees? 

6. Discuss the forms of fertilizer to be used in supplying nitrogen. 

7. From what sources may the phosphoric acid be derived? W^hich are 

best for young trees ? 

8. What two forms of potash are in common use? Give an advantage 

of each. 

9. Is orchard fertilizing practised in your section ? 



CHAPTER IX 

COVER CROPS 

While most people have a fairly clear idea of what a cover 
crop is, it may be worth while to begin by attempting to define 
it so that we may have a definite idea of just what is meant by 
the term. In orchard parlance, then, a "cover crop" is any 
crop grown in the orchard solely for the benefit of the trees. It 
is usually an annual crop and is sown in the orchard during the 
summer and plowed under the following spring. In actual 
practice we find all gradations, from the orthodox, typical cover 
crop, such as measures up to the definitions given above, on 
through such plants as turnips, which are primarily cover crops 
but where a part of the crop may be harvested, to buckwheat, 
which may be grown primarily as a companion crop and sold, 
but which serves some of the purposes of a cover crop. 

The most important purposes served by the cover crop are 
the following, arranged roughly in the order of their importance, 
though the order would vary under varying conditions : 

Prevent Washing. — The cover crop serves to prevent washing 
during fall and spring rains and to make the orchard comfortable 
to go about in during muddy weather in the spring, that is, it 
serves as a cover. A crop which will really accomplish all this 
is difficult to find, but it ought to come as near it as possible. 
There is no question that the loss of soluble plant food, and of 
actual soil, by washing is one of the great drawbacks to cultiva- 
tion on lands which are even slightly rolling, and anything which 
we can do to lessen this loss ought to be done. Of course the 
cover crop helps to prevent washing both by its roots and its 
tops. It is therefore important, on lands which are subject to 
washing, to select a plant as a cover crop that will develop a 
large top which will mat down on the surface of the soil and 
thus prevent the water from moving, and one which also has a 
large and fibrous root system that will hold the soil particles to- 
gether. Sometimes these two characteristics go together, but fre- 
quently they do not and then one has to choose between them. It 
is difficult to say which is the more important, but a thick mat 
108 



THE MOST IMPORTANT PURPOSE 109 

over the surface will certainly accomplish wonders in preventing 
washing of the soil. 

Check Fall Growth. — The cover crop serves to check the 
growth of the trees in the autumn and thus force them to ripen 
up their wood for winter. This is often the most important func- 
tion of the cover crop and is accomplished by its appropriating 
w^ater and plant food that would otherwise go to the trees. When 
this purpose is of importance, as in sections with rather trying 
winter climates, one should select a crop that will develop a rank 
growth about the time that the trees ought to "sober down," 
which is at least as early as the first of September. The date of 
sowing the crop must of course be varied to suit its rapidity of 
growth and the needs of the trees. If the owner is using buck- 
wheat, which comes on with a rush, he can afford to delay sow- 
ing much later than if he is using soybeans, which require a 
considerable time to develop. Another very important point in 
this connection is the question of whether the cover crop is hardy 
or is killed by frost. If it is hardy, the date of seeding may 
be considerably delayed, which is sometimes very desirable where 
the trees are carrying a large crop of fruit. 

The cover crop adds humus to the soil, and where bam manure 
is not to be had for the orchard, which is frequently the case 
on special orchard farms, this purpose becomes an all-important 
one. With both light and heavy soils it is particularly important 
to keep up the supply of humus because they are both damaged 
much more than intermediate types when the humus content runs 
low. For these soils therefore one ought to select some large 
growing crop and be careful to secure a good growth of it. 
This latter is by no means as simple a matter as it might seem. 
W^eather conditions, soil conditions, the shade of the trees, and 
various other factors come in to influence the result, and unless 
the owner looks out for all the details he is likely to find his 
orchard going into the winter with very little material to either 
prevent wash or make humus. A plan which has been tried with 
considerable satisfaction, on lands where it was difficult to get a 
good growth of cover crop, is to reserve a part or even all of the 
fertilizer that is intended for that block and apply it just previous 
to sowing the cover crop. A little nitrogen in particular applied 



110 ' COVER CROPS 

at this time is likely to be a great help in starting the crop. 

The cover crop takes up and holds plant food at a time when 
the trees are not active. The importance of this may have been 
over-emphasized, but it is certainly worth considering, and it is 
one argument in favor of those crops which are not killed by 
frost. With buckwheat, for example, one gets little of this 
effect because it is killed before the trees have stopped growing. 
With any plant which lives over winter we get this benefit, but 
the amount of it varies with the amount of root growth of the 
cover plant. If the soil is occupied fully by the roots of this plant 
there is little chance of loss. 

Add Nitrogen. — A leguminous cover crop such as clover, or 
beans, or vetch will add nitrogen to the soil (Fig. 44). This is 
generally understood by all who are familiar with farm matters 
but is frequently overlooked in orchard practice as well as else- 
where. These plants are able, through the bacteria which live 
in the little nodules on their roots, to take up and "fix" the 
free nitrogen of the air. They thus offer to the orchard man an 
abundant supply of nitrogen for his orchard in return for the 
effort and expense of sowing the seed. In fact the writer recalls 
one orchard in which crimson clover was used as a cover crop 
for a series of years, where the soil actually became too rich 
in nitrogen for the best condition of the trees. They made 
too much growth and the fruit was under-colored. The owner 
suspected what the trouble was, had the soil analyzed by his 
experiment station, which told him that his soil was too rich in 
nitrogen and advised him to change cover crops. He did so, 
using buckwheat for a few years, and the trouble was entirely 
corrected. This is not a common difficulty, but is mentioned to 
show the possibilities of the leguminous crop. As nitrogen 
is by far the most expensive fertilizer to buy and as the cover 
crop offers a convenient method of getting it almost without 
cost, it is certainly a short-sighted policy of soil management 
which does not include leguminous plants often enough to fur- 
nish at least a large part of the nitrogen needed. 

A cover crop may hold the snow and leaves in the orchard 
during the winter. To do this to the best advantage it must be 
rather a stiff, upright crop, which is not the type of crop that 



PLOWING UNDER COVER CROPS 111 

gives the best results on soil washing and some other things. 
One has to choose therefore between this character and the others. 
In climates where the winters are severe, and where snow is likely 
to blow off from the orchard, this point of holding it as a pro- 
tection may be the all-important one and the orchardists may 
have to select an upright crop like soybeans or buckwheat or 
even use a mixture with corn or some other heavy plant in it, 
regardless of all other considerations. 

Protects Fallen Fruit. — The cover crop serves to protect the 
fruit which drops. This is not usually considered very important 
and can often be disregarded, but with fruit such as Yellow 
Transparent and Red Astrachan apples, which ripen irregularly 
and have to be disposed of quickly in any case, the drops are 
sometimes worth about as much as the hand picked fruit. 

Prevents Winter Injury of Roots. — It prevents the freezing 
and thawing of the soil and consequent injury to the roots during 
some winters. Any one who is not familiar with this effect will 
be surprised at the dift'erence between a block of the orchard 
with a good cover crop on it, such as clover or vetch, and one wi tli 
no crop or with a poor one. The well covered block will stay 
frozen through a long rain or spell of mild weather while the 
bare land freezes and thaws with every change in the temperature. 

In a few cases there may be other purposes served by the 
cover crop, but the above constitute the most important ones. 

Plowing Under Cover Crops. — A point which is frequently 
misunderstood and which should be considered, is the importance 
of the crop living over winter. There is often a prejudice, for 
example, against crimson clover and in favor of common red 
clover because the former does not always live over winter, while 
the latter does. It is said that while there may be a fine growth 
of the crimson clover when winter comes on, yet by spring 
(in cold climates) it has been killed, and has so dried up and 
dwindled away that there is little left to plow under. As a 
matter of fact, this does not in the least affect its value as a 
humus producer. There will be just as much humus added to 
the soil in the dried remains of the crop as there would have been 
in succulent tissues before they were killed. The only loss has 
been the water which has dried out of the stalks. 



112 COVER CROPS 

A slightly different phase of the same prejudice is seen in 
some orchardists' opinions of crops which do live over winter. 
Many men will insist on delaying plowing in the spring until 
a new growth can be produced, no matter how rank the growth 
may have been in the autumn, because they say that unless they 
do "there is so little to plow under. '^ It sometimes does look 
small in the spring, but it wdll make just as much humus as it 
would have in the autumn. 

While under certain conditions there may be no objection to 
allowing some growth in the spring; while, in fact, it may be a 
distinct advantage by producing extra humus and sometimes by 
drying out the soil ; yet there is always great danger that it will 
be allowed to stand too long. On heavy soils this objection is 
particularly strong, for a big growth of the crop will dry out the 
soil very rapidly and, if the weather happens to turn dry at just 
the right time, the soil may easily become too dry and plow up in 
big lumps that are very difficult to break up. On the Avhole a 
crop which makes a big growth in the autumn but does not live 
over winter is to be preferred because it avoids this danger. 

Plants to Use. — A great many different plants are used as 
cover crops in the orchard, depending on the locality, the type of 
soil, the number of acres to be covered, the owner's pocketbook 
and a number of other considerations. Table IV, however, in- 
cludes the most common ones. It gives also the usual rate per acre, 
the average price (though this varies greatly in different localities 
and in different years) and the cost of seeding an acre. 

The last column is very suggestive and is well worth careful 
study by the orchardist. Where one has but an acre or two of 
orchard the cost for seed is not an important matter, but when 
it runs up to even ten acres the relative cost at $6.00 per acre 
or 16 cents per acre is certainly worth consideration. 

With some crops it is possible to allow a strip along each 
tree row to mature seed and then, by cross-cultivation when the 
time arrives for sowing the cover crop, to scatter this seed over 
the entire surface of the orchard. There seems to be no serious 
objection to this practice and it will reduce materially the 
running expenses of the orchard. 

Let us now run over the catalogue of crops given and suggest 



COW-HORN AND PURPLE-TOP TURNIPS 
Table IV. — Amount and Cost of Cover Crop Seed. 



113 



Crop 



Buckwheat 

Cow peas 

Cow-horn and purple top tur- 
nips 

Dwarf Essex rape 

Barley 

Rye 

Crimson clover 

Mammoth red clover and com- 
mon red clover 

Summer vetch 

Winter vetch 

Soybeans — broadcast 

Soybeans — in drills 

Canada field peas 



Rate per Acre 


1 bu. 


IKbu. 


2 1b. 


2 1b. 


13^ bu. 


13^ bu. 


15 lbs. 


12 lbs. 


13^ bu. 


1 bu. 


13^ bu. 


3^bu. 


13^ bu. 



Price 



$1.50 bu. 
3.00 bu. 

.35 lb. 

.08 lb. 
1.25 bu. 
1.65 bu. 

.10 lb. 

.25 lb. 
3.00 bu. 
6.00 bu. 
3.50 bu. 
3.50 bu. 
3.00 bu. 



Cost per Acre 



$1.50 
4.50 

.70 
.16 

1.88 
2.47 
1.50 

3.00 
4.50 
6.00 
5.25 
1.75 
4.50 



very briefly some of their good and bad characteristics, taking 
them in the order mentioned in the table. 

Buckwheat. — This is desirable because it will grow on almost 
any soil, leaves the land in better physical condition than perhaps 
any other crop, furnishes a large amount of humus, is reasonably 
cheap, and starts so quickly after sowing that it will smother 
out many annual weeds. This last point is particularly im- 
portant where one has w^tch grass to contend with. On the other 
hand buckwheat furnishes no nitrogen, makes rather a poor 
cover, and is killed by the first frost. All things considered the 
orchardist should class buckwheat as among the best three or four 
cover crops and one which it is difficult to do without (Fig. 45). 

Cow Peas. — These are rather a southern crop and are not as 
good as several other crops wdien one gets north of Connecticut. 
In their own section, however, they are famous as soil improvers. 
They are sown in July and are killed by fall frost. 

Cow-horn and Purple-top Turnips. — The great advantage of 
these plants is cheapness, which certainly appeals to a man when 
he has fifty acres or more of orchard to cover. They also fur- 
nish an immense amount of humus, make a fairly good cover, 
and with the purple tops at least one may pull out and sell 
enough of the best turnips to far more than pay all the expense 
of the crop and still leave plenty on the ground for a cover. 
8 



114 



COVER CROPS 



The objections to turnips are that they furnish no nitrogen, but 
they do have a large amount of sulfur and other ill-smelling 
constituents which are likely to be very offensive in the spring 
when the crop is rotting down and before it can be plowed under. 
There is a further objection that they are likely to live over 
winter and go to seed, making rather an unsightly appearance 
to people who are easily worried by such things. They have not 




Fig. 45. — Buckwheat as a cover crop. One of the most satisfactory crops for this purpose, 
especially where soil conditions are not of the best. 

proved a really serious weed but are merely a little too con- 
spicuous with their gorgeous yellow flowers. 

Dwarf Essex Rape. — So far as the writer's experience and 
observation go this is the cheapest of all covers, excepts weeds, 
and it is by no means a bad crop to use. It will grow anywhere, 
grows late in the autumn, and usually survives the winter, so 
that it catches and holds the elusive nitrates, furnishes a fine lot 
of humus, and makes a surprisingly good cover, as it has a very 



CRIMSON CLOVER 115 

fibrous, though not a very large, root system. Where a good stand 
lives over winter it is sometimes rather difficult to get rid of it 
and it is always unsightly. These are not serious matters, how- 
ever, for a cover crop is not grown for its beauty, and by using a 
cultivator with broad teeth it is quite possible to kill out the 
worst case of this. On some cultivators there is a broad, V- 
shaped affair in the centre called a "sweep," and two outside 
wings, and the combination will pretty nearly clean out anything 
in the w^eed line. The rape crop gathers no nitrogen from the air. 

Barley. — This is an excellent crop to use when one does not 
care to have a nitrogenous crop and also does not want to use 
buckwheat. It generally makes a good cover, particularly late 
in the season, is not seriously expensive, makes an unusually fine 
lot of humus, and leaves the land in very fair condition. Oats 
are sometimes used in this way, but they do not leave the soil in as 
good condition as barley and they are not included in the list. 

Rye. — This is one of the greatest covers on the list when 
sown at the right time, but the great difficulty with it from the 
orchard cover crop standpoint is that it makes very little growth 
during the hot weather of July, August and early September, 
so that it is of practically no value in assisting to stop the growth 
of the trees. It will grow almost anywhere. Sown about Sep- 
tember first it makes a fine covering for the land over winter. 
When spring comes it has another shortcoming from the point of 
view of the orchard and that is that it stalks up very quickly and 
may get too tall and coarse to plow under well. It will also, on 
heavy land, dry out the soil very quickly and make trouble with 
lumps when the land is plowed. But it is fine to prevent washing 
of the soil, is reasonably cheap, furnishes a good supply of humus, 
and takes care of all soluble plant food, so that it can not be 
spared from the list. 

Crimson Clover. — When this plant will make a good growth 
in the autumn it comes the nearest to the ideal of a cover crop 
of any plant in the list. It is reasonably cheap, and fulfils 
nearly all of the offices detailed at the beginning of this chapter 
as belonging to the ideal cover crop. It does not succeed in all 
climates and it very frequently makes a poor growth for the 
first year or two that it is tried on a particular block of land. 



116 COVER CROPS 

But if the owner will persist in his efforts to grow it, it will 
often improve year by year until it makes a splendid growth. 
Another difficulty with it is that it will not grow on poor soil. 
The orchard must be in "good heart" before it is worth while 
to try any of the clovers (Fig. 44). 

Mammoth Red and Common Red Clover. — Many good 
orchardists do not have much use for these plants as cover crops 
where the land is being cultivated every year, as is usually the 
case in orchards conducted on the cultivation plan. They seldom 
make any growth worth while the first autumn and therefore to 
get enough humus they must be allowed to grow in the spring, 
which, as already explained, is very objectionable. Occasionally, 
however, when an orchard gets to growing too much wood and the 
owner wants to sober it down by seeding down the land and 
letting it stand for two or three years, the clovers are particu- 
larly good to mix with the grass seed that is used. This is where 
these clovers shine, in "semi-permanent seeding." 

The Vetches. — Both summer and winter vetches are splendid 
crops for covers and if the seed did not cost so much they would 
be just about perfect. But the seed does cost; and until some 
method is devised to bring down the cost to about one-quarter 
what it is at present they are going to be rather too costly for 
the' man who has ten acres of orchard or over. It is unfortunate 
that this is so, as vetches are certainly about all that could be 
asked for the purpose in view. On small blocks of orchard, or 
under special conditions, they may be admissible, but as a general, 
commercial proposition they do not appeal to the man who pays 
the bills. It is to be hoped that a plan may be devised whereby 
the man who owns an orchard can grow his own vetch seed, but 
at present that method has not been developed. 

Soybeans. — This is a cover crop which orchardists have used 
with a good deal of satisfaction for a number of years, but it has 
to be handled quite differently from most cover crops to be 
entirely successful. Sown broadcast, or even in drill, at the 
ordinary date, it fails to make growth enough to furnish much 
humus or to perform any of the offices of a cover crop with con- 
spicuous success. But if it can be drilled in about the middle 
of June with the rows far enough apart to admit of cultivation. 



Canada field peas 117 

and then if it is cultivated two or perhaps three times before the 
orchard is laid by, it will do splendidly. For sowing soybeans 
in this way the grower may use a small five-hole drill which is 
used largely in the Middle West for drilling wheat in the autumn 
into land where corn has been grown the summer previous. KStop 
up all but the two outside holes and then spread the drill as 
w^ide as possible. Thus two rows at a time are drilled far enough 
apart to cultivate. After the plants are up they are given two 
or three cultivations and then the land is seeded down to rape 
or turnips or buckwheat or rye. This makes a fine combination 
cover. If the beans come along nicely and ripen a good crop of 
seed, it may be harvested and threshed and will usually bring two 
and a half to three dollars per bushel wholesale. This leaves 
w^hatever else w^as sown on the land as a cover and the soil gets the 
benefit of the root-systems of the soybeans after they are mown 
off. On the other hand if the crop is not good enough to warrant 
harvesting, if the stand is poor or the frost comes before the 
beans are mature enough, then there is a fine crop to plow 
under. The common white pea-bean may be grown in much the 
same way, and with equal satisfaction. 

Care should be taken, when this method is used on land that 
is subject to wash, to have the rows run crosswise of the slope. 
If this is overlooked they help rather than hinder washing by 
keeping the water in certain channels. 

Canada field peas are sometimes used and will make the 
most humus to the square inch of anything that ever grew in an 
orchard. It is the only crop that really gives serious trouble in 
plowing it under. The vines are so rank and the stalks are so 
heavy that it is like trying to plow under a field of bean poles. 
With a good crop, the only way to get them under is to use a 
rolling coulter on the plow, and even then they will sometimes 
clog up under the plow-beam. But they do furnish humus and 
nitrogen in abundance. When they mat down on the surface 
they will stop any "wash" but a cloud-burst. 

Mixtures. — Since very few or perhaps no crops serve all, or 
even a large part of the "functions" for which cover crops are 
sown, it is often desirable to use mixtures which may be made to 
do practically everything which is required. 



118 COVER CROPS 

Here are some mixtures that have proved satisfactory: 

1. Barley, one-half bushel ; crimson clover, six pounds. 

2. Barley, one-half bushel ; winter vetch, one peck. 

3. The above combinations with buckwheat instead of barley. 
This general type of mixture is best because it contains one 

rank grower to check the growth of the trees and to furnish humus 
and one perennial legume to add nitrogen, act as a ''mat" for 
the windfalls and to catch and hold the leaching nitrates. Look 
over the list of purposes which the cover crop is expected to serve 
and see how" well either of these mixtures will fill the bill. Take 
No. 1 as an example. Both barley and clover prevent washing 
fairly well, but the clover is especially good. The rank growth 
of the barley will check the growth of the trees, and add much 
humus. It will also hold the snow and leaves, and assist in pre- 
venting winter injury. The clover on the other hand, while not 
strong on these points, grows late in the autumn, and so takes up 
the soluble food at that time, it adds nitrogen, is excellent for 
protecting the windfall fruits, and assists materially in prevent- 
ing winter injury. 

The principal objection to a mixture is that it takes more 
time to sow it since seeds must either be mixed or else two sowing 
operations will be required, one for each seed. 

Weeds. — It seems worth while to add that some orchard men 
make use of weeds as a cover crop. Where they can be depended 
upon for a good stand they are better than nothing. In fact there 
is probably no really legitimate objection to them, except with a 
very few such as witch grass. Of course they add no nitrogen. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a corn crop? 

2. What are the most important uses of orchard cover crops? 

3. Why should the fall growth of trees be checked? How does the cover 

crop assist in this? 

4. What class of cover crops add nitrogen to soils? 

5. Is there any advantage in having the cover live over winter? 

6. Give a list of the crops most suitable for winter covers in your section. 

7. Discuss the advantage of several of these. 

8. What ones are legumes? 

9. What ones live over winter? What ones are killed by fall frosts? 
10. What is the objection to perennial crops for this purpose? 



CHAPTER X 
PRUNING 

No other operation connected with growing an orchard can 
compare in interest with pruning. It requires more knowledge, 
more experience, and more thought than any other orchard work. 
Probably it is also true that we know less about it (or think we 
know more things that are not so) than about most other opera- 
tions. Yet books have been written and might still be written 
about what is known of the art and science of pruning. 




Fig. 46. — A young apple tree started on the wrong road by bad pruning. All the fruit spurs 
have been removed from the lower branches. 

In the present chapter we shall attempt merely to under- 
stand a few of the most universally accepted general principles 
and to bring out some of the practical details of pruning our 
common orchard fruits. 

How Trees Bear their Fruit. — One of the first things for the 
would-be pruner to acquire is a thorough understanding of the 
way in which the different orchard trees bear their fruit. Many 
a good apple tree has had its usefulness curtailed because the 
man who pruned it did not realize the vital importance of the 

119 



120 PRUNING 

little crooked spurs along its branches, but insisted in clearing 
them off to make the tree look more neat. Figure 46 shows an 
excellent example of a young apple tree which has been thus 
started on the wrong road, and Figure 94 shows an old orchard 
which has travelled that road for years, in fact it has travelled 
it so long that it would be difficult to get it onto any other 
road. 

In view of the importance of this side of the question, it may 
be worth while to begin by summing up briefly the method of 
fruit-bearing in each of the principal orchard fruits. 

The apple and pear may be discussed together since their 
plan of bearing is practically identical. Most varieties of these 
two fruits bear almost altogether on short, crooked little branches, 
known technically as ''fruit spurs." There are some varieties 




Fig. 47. — An apple fruit spur. This spur is perhaps six inches long and has probably- 
borne five apples. Yet many pruners systematically cut them off the trees. 



which, particularly when young, bear fruit from lateral buds on 
the one year wood, and even for terminal buds on this wood, but 
this is rather uncommon. An apple spur is shown in Figure 47. 
This particular spur has a terminal bud on each of two very 
short branches. In the spring these buds expand and produce a 
number of leaves, perhaps a half dozes, surrounding from four to 
six blossoms. Under normal conditions one of these blossoms sets 
a fruit and the balance fall away. The growing and ripening of 
this apple takes about all the strength of the spur, but it usually 
manages to develop at one side a small leaf bud which the follow- 
ing year makes a very short growth in a new direction and at the 
end of the season produces another large, plump terminal bud. 
The following year this bud bears an apple, and so on. We thus 
have the spur bearing an apple every alternate year and con- 
tinuing its slow, crooked growth for a long series of years. The 



THE APPLE AND PEAR 



121 



spur shown in Figure 47 was about ten years old and was probably 
not more than six inches long. It had borne at least five apples. 
This is practically the only way in which apples and pears 
are produced, upon these little spurs, so that the man who gets en- 
thusiastic for cleanliness and prunes off all of these little spurs 
from his apple and pear trees is simply spoiling his chance of 
getting any fruit from that particular part of the tree. Just con- 
trast the pear branch shown in Figure 48, with its wealth of these 
little spurs, with the young tree shown in Figure 46. In the one 




FiQ. 48. — A pear branch well supplied with fruit spurs. 

a maximum crop. 



Such a branch is capable of bearing 



case the owner stands a chance to have his tre6 loaded down 
with fruit, while in the other he can not by any possibility get 
fruit from that part of the tree where the fruit spurs have been 
cleaned away. 

Two other facts in connection with these little spurs ought 
to be kept firmly in mind. The first is that, as already hinted, 
they continue to bear for a long series of years. It is nothing 
uncommon for one of these spurs to continue to bear for twelve 
or fifteen years and as it branches considerably it may produce 



122 



PRUNING 



in that time ten or a dozen apples. Think of the value of such 
a little spur to the man who owns the tree, and yet he is fre- 
quently the very man who cuts it off. The second point to be 
emphasized is that once these spurs are cut or broken away, they 
can never be developed agrain at that particular spot. The only 
possible way that this section of the tree can be again brought 
into usefulness is by developing water-sprouts on these bare 

branches and then growing 
fruit spurs on the water- 
sprouts. And this is a long 
and difficult process and fre- 
quently fails altogether. 

Pruning the apple or pear 
tree, therefore, ought to con- 
sist in thinning out the top so 
as to let in enough light and 
air to keep it healthy, and 
in' persistently holding on to 
these small spurs just as long 
as they remain productive. 

How Peaches are Borne. — 
Now contrast this method of 
bearing and pruning with the 
peach. It is about as different 
as one can well imagine. To 
begin with, the peach always 
bears on last year 's shoots in- 
stead of on these ancient little 
spurs (Fig. 49). Then the 
fruit buds, instead of being '* mixed" buds, as in the apple, which 
produce both leaves and blossoms, are plain blossom buds, each 
winter bud containing a single peach blossom. This is probably 
one reason why peaches are more subject to winter-killing of the 
fruit buds than apples. They are not nearly so well protected. 
And lastly the bearing section of the tree in the peach migrates 
along the branch, as we might say, instead of remaining practi- 
cally stationary for years, as in the apple. 




Fig. 49. — Young peaches just set. Notice 
that most nodes have two peaches and a 
cluster of leaves. 



HOW PEACHES ARE BORNE 



123 



The whole object of the peach primer is therefore to keep up 
a supply of new wood. His short, interior twigs are often useless 
after one year, in which case he may cut them out altogether. 
In any case he prunes his tree much more severely than in the 
apple, so as to develop new growth. Sometimes this new growth, 
resulting from severe pruning, is so vigorous that it does not 
bear much the first year but the operator knows that he can rely 



Fig. 50. 



Fig. 51. 





Fig. 59. — Spurs of the European plum. They differ from the apple in being straight ard 

in not living so long. 

Fig. 51. — Cherry spurs. Similar to the plum. 

on its sobering down by the second year and producing a lot of 
good new shoots that will bear. 

The " leaders " in the peach need especial attention. From 
the very fact that the method of bearing is progressive, there 
is a strong tendency for these leaders to get away and carry the 
tree to undue heights. This disposition is especially strong in 
young trees, and for several years after the tree is set the pruner 
has to take out practically all the leaders, even though he knows 
that they will be replaced by an equally strong growth. 



124 PRUNING 

The plums and the cherry may, perhaps, be classed together 
because their methods of bearing, though differing in many 
minor details, are essentially the same. They all agree in bear- 
ing their fruit not only on the sides of shorter or longer spurs, but 
also from the lateral buds of last year's growth. These spurs, 
which may be seen, in Figures 50 and 51, differ from those of the 
apple in that they produce their fruit from lateral buds and also 
in that they do not live nearly so long as the apple spurs. These 
fruits also agree fairly closely in the character of the winter 
blossom bud, which is about half way between that of the peach 
and the apple. There are usually two or more blossoms in each 




Fig. 52. — Blossoms of the Japanese plum. These bear on short, plump spurs which carry 
a large number of blossom buds and consequently set fruit very abundantly. 

winter bud and one or more leaves, though the leaves are fre- 
quently rather rudimentary^ (Figs. 52, 53 and 54). 

In pruning these trees the orchardist adopts a middle course. 
They are not pruned as severely as in the peach because the 
spurs are going to bear for three or four or even more years, but 
they are pruned more severely than the apple because the bearing 
wood has to be renewed more frequently. 

The Quince. — It remains to speak briefly of the quince, 
which has a method of fruit bearing entirely its own. There 
are not any winter fruit buds whatever ; but each spring, shoots 
arise from lateral buds on last year's wood, and after these 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 



125 



shoots have grown from one to six inches they produce a single, 
terminal blossom, which of course stops any further growth in 
that direction. The pruning ought therefore to aim at keeping 
the tree growing with reasonable vigor, and at keeping up a 
supply of new wood. 

General Principles of Pruning. — It seems worth while to 
notice next a very few general principles which apply with 
greater or less force to the pruning of any tree. 



Fig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 





Fig. 53. — Blossoms of the European plum. Notice the blossoms and small or rudimentary 
leaves from each winter bud. 

Fig. 54. — Cherries just set. Notice that only one (or two) in each cluster is developing. 
The rest will be crowded out in the struggle for existence. 

Heavy Pruning and Vigorous Growth. — The first, and by all 
means the most important of these, is that a heavy pruning of 
the top during the dormant season will tend to cause a very 
vigorous wood growth the following season. This is exactly 
what might be expected and is easily explained if one will think 
the matter over a little. When the tree goes into the winter there 
is normally a balance between the top and the root system. Each 



126 PRUNING 

one has grown enough so that when spring comes 'round again 
and growth begins, the roots can supply the food and water that 
will be needed to make a natural, typical growth of the top. 
Now comes along the pruner and takes off twenty-five to fifty 
per cent of that top. The result is that there remains one 
hundred per cent of roots to support fifty per cent of top, and 
of course the top is going to be better supported. It is going 
to make a tremendous growth to try and take care of all the food 
that the root is supplying. This is an especially important princi- 
ple in renovation work, which is discussed in Chapter XVI. 

Bank Growth Opposed to Fruit -hearing. — A second general 
principle which ought to go with this first one, though it is not 
strictly a principle of pruning, is that rank wood growth is 
opposed to fruit-bearing. One will rarely find a tree which is 
growing very vigorously that is also bearing heavily. The two 
things simply do not go together. The young tree, so long as it 
remains vigorous and growthy, does not come into bearing. In 
general it is those varieties, like the Wagener . and Oldenburg 
apples, which are not vigorous growers, that bear earl^^ in life, 
while the strong growing sorts like Gravenstein and Spy require 
more time to come into fruit. So it is with the heavily pruned 
old tree. It at once starts a very vigorous growth of top but 
does not bear fruit until it has had time for this growth to 
subside. 

The lesson which these two principles teach is very fre- 
quently overlooked by the man who does the pruning. He 
gauges his success by the amount of wood he takes out of the 
tree, and then when the tree fails to bear the following year he 
blames the practice of pruning instead of the operator. 

Influence of Summer Pruning. — A third principle is that 
when pruning is done in the winter the tendency is to promote 
a strong growth of wood, while pruning done in the summer 
tends in the opposite direction, or towards the production of 
fruit. There can be no question about the first part of this. 
It is the same fact that was given in the first principle, only 
stated a little differently. The strength of the tendency will 
correspond exactly to the severity of the pruning. Prune a 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 



127 



tree very severely during the dormant season and you will 
develop a very strong- tendency towards wood growth the follow- 
ing year; prune it very moderately and the tendency to wood 
will be moderate. The other side of the principle, the influence 
of summer pruning towards the production of fruit, is not so 
well established and doubtless depends considerably on the 
nature and extent of such pruning. If a large amount of wood is 



Fig. 55. 



Fig. 56. 




Fig. 55. — A Sutton apple tree. A very upright growing tree and one that is difficult to 
prune into a satisfactory shape. 

Fig. 56. — Bradshaw plum tree. Like many other varieties of European plums the Bradshaw 
makes scrong leaders which need to be cut back each year to keep the tree down. 

removed in the summer pruning, and particularly if this is done 
rather early in the season, it is very doubtful whether there is 
much, if any, tendency towards fruit. In fact such pruning 
will usuall}^ result in developing secondary shoots which may 
produce quite as much growth as the original shoot would have 
done. But if the pruning is delayed until rather late in the 
season, and if it then consists in merely taking out the growing 



128 PRUNING 

tip of the leaders, then it ought to have a considerable influence 
towards fruit-bearing. 

This seems to be a reasonable explanation. We have said 
that rank growth does not favor fruit, while moderate growth 
does. This is because it is necessary to have plenty of elabo- 
rated plant food, such as starch and sugar in the cells to 
produce the fruit bud. It is the lack of this elaborated plant 
food which forces the little apple spur to produce merely a leaf 
bud the year that it bears an apple. Now if the summer prun- 
ing is delayed until rather late in the season so that plenty of 
leaf surface has been developed to manufacture starch and sugar, 
and if we then merely take out the growing tip we develop 
exactly the conditions that will tend towards fruit. We have 
taken away that part of the plant which was forming new leaves 
and new wood and which was therefore using a large amount 
of plant food (far more than it was itself producing), and we 
have left the manufacturing end of the tree practically the 
same as it was before. There is nothing left for the tree to do 
but to develop fruit buds. 

Different Pruning for Old and Young Trees. — It is perhaps 
worth while to give one more general principle and that is that 
the habit of growth is quite different in a young tree from that 
in an old tree, and consequently the young tree requires a 
different kind of pruning. This difference is shown in various 
ways. In the first place the young tree grows more rankly, 
producing longer shoots and larger leaves. 

In the second place young trees of most varieties tend to 
make a much more upright growth while young than when they 
get older. This is especially true of certain varieties of plums, 
apples, and pears, but it applies more or less to nearly all kinds 
of tree fruits except a certain few, like the Burbank and Satsuma 
plums, which are persistent sprawlers from the start (Fig. 57). 
Now if one of these close-growing young trees is thinned out 
during the first few years to what may seem the proper degree 
of density then, when it comes into bearing, and the branches 
spread, as they naturally will, with the load of fruit the top is 
entirely too open. The pruner ought, therefore, to understand 



PRUNING TOOLS 



129 



his variety and if it is an upright grower, as the Bartlett pear, 
it should be allowed to remain somewhat too thick while young, 
knowing that when it comes into bearing it will correct this 
difficulty of itself. 

Pruning Tools. — Let us turn now to some of the practical 
details of pruning the orchard. The first thing to do is to pro- 
vide a suitable outfit of pruning tools. This, of course, is going 
to vary with the type of pruning that one is doing, but for 




Fig. 57. — A Burbank plum tree; one of those sprawling growing varieties which need to 
have the side leaders cut back every year. 



general pruning, for doing all the different kinds that one is 
likely to be called upon to do, there should be at least several 
different saws, a good pair of hand shears, and a knife. Possibly 
we might add the pole pruner, though it is rare that it is needed 
and then it is unsatisfactory, as it can not be made to take 
off a branch properly. The one place where a pole pruner is 
really useful is in heading back side branches that are out of 
reach from the ground. The knife will be used the least of any 
part of the equipment, barring the pole pruner, but still the 
9 



130 



PRUNING 







PRTjNING saws 131 

workman does occasionally find a place where nothing is quite so 
satisfactory as a good knife — in removing side shoots from the 
trunk of a young tree, for example. 

Pruning Saws. — It is a singular thing, but the writer has 
never found a pruning saw upon the market that exactly suited 
him for serious orchard work. The fact that nine-tenths of the 
pruning saws on the market are of the two-edged type lends 
strength to the argument that there are at least very few good 
pruning saws to be had (Fig. 59). This two-edged pruning saw 
is a relic of barbarism which probably comes down from the days 
of the two-edged sword when men were not particular how much 
they mutilated the remains of their victims. Certainly no man 
who has ever done any pruning, and who has any regard for the 
tree he is at work upon, would ever use such a saw the second 



1 



W 



Fig. 59. — The two-edged saw. An abomination that ought to be banished from the orchard. 

time if it could be avoided. After a good deal of thought and 
some experimenting, and after many consultations with practical 
orchard men, the writer has developed the series of saws shown 
in the accompanying pictures (Figs. 60, 61 and 62), which, if 
they are not entirely satisfactory, are at least a great improve- 
ment over anything that could be bought in the open market. 
They were all made up on special orders, by one of our large 
saw manufacturers. 

The largest saw is designed for renovation work primarily, 
and any one who has ' * fiddled along ' ' with one of the ordinary 
small pruning saws, or who has in desperation resorted to a 
big, clumsy carpenter's saw, will be delighted with the way this 
saw works. It was modelled after an old carpenter's saw that 
had been filed so often it had been reduced nearly to a point, 



132 PRUNING 

and the narrowness at the point of this saw shown will be 
appreciated by the orchard renovator who gets into a narrow 
place. The specifications of the saw will be found beneath the 
picture. In developing this saw the large type of tooth was first 
tried ; this is known technically as the lumberman 's tooth, and is 
shown in the cut of the two-edged saw. This tooth was tried 
because it seemed reasonable that a large tooth, on a saw of this 

Fig. 60. Fig. 61. Fig. 62. 




Fig. 60. — A good saw for small trees. It is 14 inches long, three inches wide at the butt, 

with seven teeth per inch. 
Fig. 61. — An excellent saw for heavy pruning. It is 26 inches long, 6 inches wide at the 

butt, 1 inch wide at the tip and has five teeth per inch. 

Fig. 62. — A good saw for ordinary pruning. It is 24 inches long, 4 inches wide at the butt, 

1 inch wide at the tip, with five and one-half teeth per inch. 

type, would cut faster than a small one, but in actual orchard 
work it was found that it required more effort to cut off a 
branch with the coarse-toothed saw than with the finer type. 
The saw simply did not have weight enough to carry such 
heavy teeth. 

The second and third saws are intended for use on trees 
which have been well cared for and regularly pruned and which 
therefore do not need to have any very large branches taken out. 



PRUNING SHEARS 133 

The writer is still experimenting on both, of these siz^es and may 
develop some slight changes, but they are very satisfactory just 
as they stand. The small saw, Figure 60, is intended primarily 
for work in young trees, but it will do excellent work on any 
ordinary fruit tree. It simply means a little more work to get 
off a large limb with this saw than with those shown in Figures 
61 and 62. 

Pruning Shears. — Next to a saw, a good pair of hand shears 
will be found most useful. In fact where the orchardist is 
pruning fairly young trees, say up to six or seven years, and 
where he has a large pair of shears, of the type shown in Figure 




Fig. 63. — An excellent type of pruning shears. A large part of the pruning on many trees 
may be done with a shear of this type. 

63, it is surprising how seldom it is necessary to resort to the 
saw. The shears shown are imported, being made in France. 
They are known technically as the '' French wheel-spring 
shears." It seems unfortunate to be obliged to recommend 
an imported article; perhaps the writer has been unfortunate 
in the American shears he has used, but he has tried many makes 
and none of them have stood up under hard usage like this 
French make. In buying such shears get good-sized ones for 
heavy work. A ten-inch size of this pattern is none too large 
when one is going to do a lot of heavy pruning. For example : 
A foreman of a pruning gang used one of these ten-inch shears 



134 



PRUNING 



for pruning about three thousand peach trees four and five years 
old, and an equal number of apple trees varying; from one to five 
years; and after all this pruning the shears were still in good 
working order. 

A good knife completes the outfit for most work. A heavy 
knife, with a wide blade and a good hook on the end of the 
blade, is best. The one shown in Figure 64 suits the work admir- 
ably, though a man will use a pair of shears a thousand times 

FiQ. 64. Fig. 65. 




tiG. 64. — A good type of pruning knife. Long hooked blade and large enough for heavy- 
work. 

Fig. 65. — A good combination knife; pruning, budding and ordinary blades. 

for every time he uses a knife. The second knife shown in 
Figure 65 is a good one, with a budding blade and an ordinary 
blade, in addition to the pruner. Where a man wants to do 
various things with the knife it is probably worth having. 
Usually, however, the workman prefers to have his blade in 
different handles, and carry only the type of knife for which he 
has immediate use. 



YOUNG TREES 135 

Actual Pruning. — Now let us sally forth with our newly- 
acquired pruning tools and do some actual pruning. Every 
different tree will prove to be a different problem. This is one 
thing that makes pruning interesting. It is not the province 
of this chapter to suggest all the types of problems that the 
pruner will encounter. Two of these will have to suffice. 

Young Trees. — The first is the young tree. Like training 
children this is the most important and the most difficult stage. 
At the time of setting, the tree is given a severe pruning as out- 
lined in chapter four. The next season and for several years 
thereafter something like the following program is followed: 

First. — The head of the tree is examined to see that the main 
branches are satisfactory in number and in position. There ought 
to be from three to five of these main scaffold branches and they 
should be well distributed about the tree, not coming out at the 
same height and not too many of them on any one side. This 
is a more serious problem than some might think, particularly 
with certain varieties such as the Wealthy apple, which do not 
tend to form good heads naturally. It will require ten times 
the effort on this one point- to shape up satisfactorily a block 
of Wealthy trees that it will to develop a similar block of ]\Ic- 
Intosh trees. In any case, but particularly with wayward 
growers, it is well worth while to look after this matter of main 
branches during the growing season, and it ought to be settled 
just as early in the life of the tree as possible. Yet with all one's 
care it often happens that branches simply will not develop in 
the right place at the start, and the pruner must keep at the tree 
until he gets a reasonably satisfactory top. Frequently he has 
to forego a scaffold branch at one point and train out secondary 
branches from adjoining main branches to supply the deficiency. 

Second. — Examine the leaders, particularly the leaders in the 
top of the tree, and shorten them in, if they need it, as they may 
if they are running especially high. In most cases the side leaders 
may be allowed to grow as much as they will, for at this stage one 
wants to develop a good big tree. It is only with such sprawling 
growers as the Burbank plum that one needs to head back the 
side leaders. 



136 PRUNING 

Third. — Look for poor forks on all the main branches. This 
is not quite so important as the forks at the main trunk, but it 
is well worth looking out for, especially with varieties which 
tend to develop these poor forks frequently, and it does not re- 
quire a great amount of time. 

Fourth. — Take out crossing branches, particularly those 
which tend to grow back into the centre of the tree where they 
do not belong. As a rule these crossing branches may be left 
till the second year without any damage, unless they are very 
vigorous, and one will find that it requires much less time to do 
the necessary pruning if only two-year wood is considered. This 
is really a point of a good deal of practical importance where one 
has many trees to prune. With a half dozen trees to look after 
the owner can afford to look at every twig. "With a half dozen 
hundred it is a different matter. 

Fifth. — Thin out the rest of the top where this may be 
needed. Usually there is little left to do after the first four 
points have been looked after. The writer is very strongly of 
the opinion that young trees, from two to five or six years of age, 
should be pruned just as little as possible and still have them 
develop well formed heads and good main branches. Thinning 
for the sake of thinning ought to be reduced to a minimum. 

Sixth. — Never take out the small shoots so long as they re- 
main healthy. This rule has few exceptions. If the top is too 
thick take out small branches with their attached shoots but do 
not take the shoots alone. 

Bearing Trees. — The second illustrative pruning problem we 
want to discuss is the tree at bearing age. Of course this is 
going to vary greatly even with different varieties, and still more 
with different classes of fruits, and yet there are a good many 
things which are common to all trees. Here is the program : 

First. — Preserve the fruit spurs. Never strip a branch of 
small shoots, whether they are SDurs or not. This has already 
been discussed under the various fruits and also under the young 
tree and it need not be further elaborated here, but it is of 
crucial importance. 

Second, — Thin the top uniformly by taking out relatively 



TIME TO PRUNE 137 

small branches. It is a very common mistake to prune out too 
large branches while removing the same total amount of wood 
from the tree. This means that in some parts of the top we have 
made large holes where there is no wood whatever, while in 
other parts the top is as thick as before. Branches the size of 
a man 's finger are the ideal size. This kind of pruning requires 
more work, in some cases much more work, but it is worth the 
extra effort. And the tendency to overdo the pruning is less. 
Third. — Cut out dead or diseased or broken branches. This 
needs no discussion except to say that in some diseases, like black 
knot and canker, it is not always possible to remove all the 
affected branches. Sometimes the branch is of so much impor- 
tance that it must be cured if possible. 

FourtlK — Shorten back the leaders where they are going 
too high or are spreading too far. In doing this do not leave a 
straight stub but take them back to a side shoot. The importance 
of keeping the trees down where they can be sprayed and picked 
and pruned easily can hardly be overestimated. 

Fifth. — Take out the water-sprouts altogether where they are 
not needed and shorten them back severely where they are 
needed. In this type of tree, the well-cared-for, bearing tree, 
there are usually few water-sprouts and no need of preserving 
them. But if they are needed it is merely to reclothe a branch 
with bearing wood and they should therefore be cut back each 
year to one or two buds. This ought to gradually cause the for- 
mation of fruit spurs. If not they should be taken out altogether. 
Sixth. — Cut out crossing branches or such as tend to grow back 
into the tree. There are not likely to be many of these where 
the pruning is attended to yearly, yet there are always a few. 
Seventh. — Thin the balance of the top where it is needed. 
As with the young tree, there is usually not much left to thin 
after all the other points are looked after. 

Time to Prune. — It remains to discuss briefly a few general 
questions which are sure to come up where the subject of pruning 
is being discussed. The first of these is the season of the year 
at which pruning should be done. It does not make much differ- 
ence. Summer and winter pruning have already been discussed, 
and barring the difference brought out in that discussion, there is 



138 



PRUNING 



little choice as to seasons so far as the effect on the tree is con- 
cerned. There is this objection to autumn pruning that the 
wounds made then have to stand a long time before they can 
begin to heal, which means, of course, that they dry out and die 
back further than they would if made at any other time of year. 
And yet other considerations may entirely offset this objection. 
For example, renovation pruning is frequently done in the autumn, 
because the owner wants to begin the fight on the San Jose scale, 



FiQ. 66. 



Fig. 67. 





Fig. 66. — A long stub left in pruning. Such a stub is sure to decay before it can heal over. 

Fig. 67. — An old stub beginning to decay. It is impossible for such stubs to heal over 
and every one is a menace to the tree. 



and this can not be done to the best advantage until the 
dead and half -dead branches have all been removed. It ought also 
to be said here that there is no harm to the tree from pruning 
when the wood is frozen. It may harm the pruner but not the 
pruned. There is also probably little harm to the tree from 
bleeding, though it is best to avoid it if possible. It produces 
more favorable conditions for disease germs and possibly weakens 
the tree slightly. 



HOW TO PRUNE 



139 



There are two very strong reasons why pruning is usually 
done during the dormant season, the first being that there is 
usually more time at that season of the year, and the second 
that a workman can judge better what branches ought to be re- 
moved, because there are no leaves to interfere. It will be seen, 
therefore, that the time for pruning is chosen largely from the 
standpoint of convenience. Do it when it will best fit in with 
the other farm work. 

How to Prune. — The best way to make the cuts in pruning 
is of far more importance than the time of making them. To 



Fig. 69. 



Fig. 70. 




Fig. GS. — A well-made wound. Such a wound will heal over if some dressing is used to 

preserve the heart wood. 

Fig. 69. — A well-made wound beginning to heal. With proper care such a wound will heal 

over completely in a few years. 

Fig. 70. — A well-made wound that has entirely healed over. 

begin with, eYery branch that is removed, whether it be small or 
large, ought to be cut just as close to the limb from which it is 
taken as possible (Fig. 68). There is no exception to this rule. 
A large collection of these wounds was made in getting up an 
exhibition on pruning, for a ** better farming " train. With- 
out any exception the wounds where long stubs had been left 
were not healing well. Those that were old enough had already 
begun to decay (Fig. 67). Those which had been cut close were 
healing nicely. Some of these wounds are shown in Figures 68 
and 69. Cutting back close like this is going to enlarge the 



140 PRUNING 

wound considerably, but do not worry about that. Cut close, 
and the tree will do the rest. 

It is also desirable to leave the wound as smooth as possible, 
to which end one should not use an axe but should use a sharp 
saw. It rarely pays, however, in commercial work to smooth a 
wound up with a knife. Leave that for the amateur. Occa- 
sionally, when the best healing is very important and when, 
in some way, a rough cut has been made, it may be worth while 
to take a knife and smooth up the edges along the cambium 
layer. 

Dressings for Wounds. — All sorts of things are used for this 
purpose, from mixtures of clay and cow-dung to grafting wax or 
shellac. The ideal dressing ought to be durable, waterproof, 
harmless to the tree, reasonably cheap and easily applied. If it 
can be antiseptic so much the better. In the writer's opinion 
there are just two classes of dressings that are worth using. 
These are paints of various kinds and the tar and creosote 
mixtures. For nearly all wounds, paint is the best material by 
far and comes very near to possessing all of the desirable points 
just enumerated. It is best to mix your own paint rather thick, 
using white lead and raw linseed oil. Also add a little raw 
sienna, enough to make the paint about the color of the bark. 
This does not make it any better dressing, but the wounds you 
are making will worry the neighbors less. This is particularly 
important on renovation w^ork where many and relatively large 
wounds will have to be made. Tar or creosote are preferred on 
large wounds simply because these substances are better pre- 
servatives than paint, and the heartwood of the large wound will 
have to stand many years before it is completely healed over. 
One reason why tar preserves better than paint is because it 
strikes in more deeply. It therefore damages the cambium layer 
more, and for this reason, on large wounds which it is very de- 
sirable to have heal well, the pruner will sometimes tar the 
center of the wound and use oil and lead paint around the out- 
side over the cambium layer. This takes considerable time but is 
worth it in important cases. Pruners are sometimes advised to 
take a paint pot into the tree when pruning and paint the 



QUESTIONS 141 

wounds at once. There are two objections to this: First, the 
pruning tools are all that he wants to be bothered with at one 
time; and, second, the wounds will take the paint much better 
if they are allowed to dry out a little. It is usually much better 
to delay the painting for two or three weeks. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Explain why the pruner should understand how trees bear their fruit 

2. Describe the method of fruit-bearing of pear and apple trees. 

3. What should be the object of the orchardist in pruning these trees? 

4. Describe the method of fruit-bearing in the peach. 

5. Give the differences in pruning between the peach and the apple. 

6. Compare the plum or the cherry with the apple in method of bearing 

fruit. 

7. How would the pruning difi'er? 

8. How does the quince differ from the others in its fruit-bearing? 

9. Explain the general relation between heavy pruning and vigorous 

growth. 

10. Why is rank growth opposed to fruit-bearing? 

11. What are the influences of summer pruning as compared with winter 

pruning? 

12. Wiiy should the pruning of young trees difi'er from that of old ones? 

13. Give a list of pruning tools for orchard work. 

14. What are some of the desirable points in a pruning saw? 

15. Describe the best shears for orchard pruning. 

16. Give specific directions for the pruning of young trees for the first few 

years. 

17. Discuss the problems involved in pruning trees of bearing age. 

18. Give cautions and directions regarding the pruning operations. 

19. How should wounds be dressed? Why is this done? 

20. Have you seen old orchards that were not properly pruned? What 

was the effect of such neglect? 



CHAPTER XI 
ORCHARD INSECTS 

It is not expected that this chapter will include, by any 
means, all of the insects with which the orchard owner is likely 
to have dealings. To do that would require a volume in itself. 
An endeavor has been made to select merely those insects w^hich 
experience and observation have shown were almost certain to be 
commercially important to the man who grows an orchard. And 
they have been treated in the briefest possible way and princi- 
pally from the standpoint of fighting them in the orchard, only 
enough of their life history being included to give a key to the 
most effective line of treatment. 

Following the custom of almost every one who writes on this 
subject, the writer wishes to lay down certain general principles, 
a knowledge of which ought to enable the orchardist to select, 
with a fair degree of certainty, the remedies that should be most 
successful. Of course the details will vary slightly with each case, 
but it should be possible for anyone to select the general line of 
attack. 

The first general rule is that if an insect actually devours the 
tissues of the plant, so that anyone can see very evidently where 
it has been at work and that some of the tissue has disappeared, 
then the cheapest and best remedy is some kind of poison applied 
to that part of the plant where the insect is feeding. In other 
words, it is cheaper to poison an insect by means of the food it 
eats than it is to kill it in any other way ; but you are able to 
kill it in this way only when it chews off a piece of the leaf or 
fruit and swallows it. 

Take the tent-caterpillar as an example of this class of in- 
sects. Almost every one is familiar with its work. The tree 
attacked looks more and more ragged as its leaves are eaten 
until finally it may be entirely stripped of foliage. It ought to 
be evident to anyone that these insects are devouring the plant 
tissues and can be killed through their food. Some sort of poison 
142 



INSECTS OF THE APHIS TYPE- 143 

is used to kill them, such as Paris green or arsenate of lead, and 
not such a substance as lime, or sulfur or copper sulfate. 

If a man were attempting to poison a skunk or a weasel that 
was killing his chickens he would not expect to do it by putting 
out a bait covered with sulfur, but would use some form of 
strychnine or arsenic. Precisely the same rule holds with 
insects. They are merely smaller animals. They take the poison 
along with the plant tissue into the stomach and are killed. 

Now contrast with this the aphis, which is a conspicuous 
example of an altogether different type of insects. Most orchard 
owners are entirely too familiar with the way this insect works. 
If the owner is on the watch for it he sees first a few little green 
or black lice on the under side of the leaf, or even on the opening 
bud, waiting for the leaf to appear. These increase rapidly in 
number and the leaf begins to curl up because the under sur- 
face, where the insects are sucking the sap of the leaf, is thereby 
retarded in its growth, while the upper surface, being less 
affected, continues to grow normally or nearly so. But the leaf; 
while it is distorted, does not disappear. It is all there except the 
juice and no amount of poison applied to it will have any effect 
on the aphis. It would be exactly as reasonable to expect to kill 
a mosquito, by putting Paris green on one 's hand, as to destroy 
the aphis with such a poison. The beak of either insect would 
be pushed through the layer of poison and into the tissues on 
which it wished to feed and it would draw in the blood of the 
man or the sap of the plant without any poison whatever. 

Insects of the aphis type have to be attacked in an entirely 
different manner. And it is a much more expensive method. 
They must be treated with some substance which will either stop 
up the pores along the sides of the abdomen through which the 
insect breathes or else (either by entering those pores or by work- 
ing on the surface of the insect) will corrode the tissues and 
destroy the insect. Soapy substances work in the former manner, 
while the oils and similar substances actually attack the tissues. 

These may seem like very simple statements and so they are. 
But they are fundamental and are inserted here because so often 
they are not understood. Indeed, at meetings of fruit growers 



144 ORCHARD INSECTS 

one often hears some intelligent orchard man recommend the use 
of Bordeaux mixture for the tent-caterpillar, or condemn arsenate 
of lead because it did not kill the aphis. 

APPLE INSECTS 

The following list comprises those insects which the apple 
grower has to reckon with year in and year out. Of course 
they do not all come in any one season, but he has to be on the 
watch for them, and when they do come they make serious 
trouble. They are arranged roughly in the order of their im- 
portance, though seasons, localities and even varieties influence 
this point. 

The San Jose scale and the codling moth are rivals for first 
place on the list of the apple grower's insect troubles. Either 
one is bad enough but the scale is considered first because of its 
ability in actually killing the trees. In its damage to the fruit 
itself the codling moth is far in the lead, for a wormy apple is 
seriously damaged, while the apple with scale on it is not hurt 
much for cooking and even for eating raw, a few scales will not 
particularly affect the flavor. 

There are three things which make the scale an insect specially 
dreaded by the orchardist. 

Inco7ispicnous. — The first of these is its inconspicuous char- 
acter. Unless the owner is very familiar with it, the first notice 
he has of its presence on the tree may be the dying of some of 
the branches. An insect which is spectacular in its attack, such 
as the tent-caterpillar or the fall web-worm, has little chance of 
escaping notice. But the San Jose scale is so small, and looks so 
much like the bark of the tree, that even one who is entirely 
familiar with it may go by an affected tree day after day and 
never notice it. The writer confesses with chagrin that he has 
proved this point in his own garden. 

Breeds Rapidly. — The second difficulty in combating the 
scale is the fact that it breeds continuously and rapidly through- 
out the season. Beginning some time in the late spring or early 
summer, at a date varying with the locality, the young scales are 



SAN JOSE SCALE I45 

produced up to late autumn. And they are produced with sur- 
prising rapidity. Investigations have shown that so rapidly are 
the young produced and so quickly do they reach maturity, that 
starting with a single female in the spring we might reasonably 
expect that by the close of the breeding season there would be a 
family of something like a billion, if there were no accidents. 
Fortunately there are many accidents, but, even so, the rate of 
increase is tremendous. This '* continuous performance " in 
production means that while the grower may clean up the trees 
in the early spring and have relatively few live scales, yet if he 
leaves any at all, he may expect that by autumn the trees will 
be in bad shape again. 

Attacks Many Kinds of Plants. — The third difficulty in keep- 
ing the scale down comes from the fact that it feeds on so many 
different trees and shrubs. The orchardist may get it out of 
his apple trees, but an adjoining currant patch or some Japanese 
quinces or thorn trees or dog-woods on a neighbor's lawn, or 
even willow trees along the brook, may furnish a new source of 
supply. It is therefore a constant fight in a scale neighborhood. 

Hard to Recognize. — The first point in this fight is to learn 
to recognize the pest. The easiest way to do this with apple 
trees is to watch the young apples as they develop. The young 
scales seem to be particularly partial to the fruit and are espe- 
cially conspicuous on it, so that if there are any great number of 
scales on the trees one is sure to find them sooner or later on 
the apples. They usually collect at the blossom or calyx end of 
the fruit, and frequently, though not always, produce a bright 
red spot, the scales themselves varying in color from nearly 
white on through gray to practically black. One will therefore 
find a white, gray or black central speck surrounded by a bright 
red ring. The scale itself is easily scraped off, leaving the red 
ring with a light center. On the twigs and branches the appear- 
ance is frequently described as resembling ashes thrown upon 
the tree, and this is as good a description as can be given. The 
bark will be roughened, and on scraping it with the thumb nail 
or the back of a jack-knife a wet, yellowish streak is produced 
by the crushing of the insects. Also if the observer cuts into 
10 



146 ORCHARD INSECTS 

the twig, the inner bark, which is normally green, will be found 
to be stained red. 

Remedies. — In fighting this insect the two standard remedies, 
at the present time, are the lime-sulfur washes and the miscible, 
or so-called "soluble," oils, which are fully described in 
Chapter XIV. Many other things are used, and doubtless 
new remedies will be constantly put upon the market, but these 
two have stood the test of time and seem likely to stand it for 
some time to come. It is usually not possible to keep the scale 
entirely under control particularly in sections where there are 
some neglected orchards, without giving two sprayings per year. 
Not being able to decide which of the above remedies is the 
better, the writer has developed the plan of using oil in the 
autumn, as soon as the leaves are off the trees, and lime-sulfur 
in the spring just before the buds break, when he has a bad 
attack of the scale to combat. The bulk of the insects are thus 
killed by the autumn treatment while many of them are young 
and less resistant, and one gets the advantage of the "creeping" 
of the oil. Also the operation is less disagreeable, which is worth 
considering. And lastly, the tree does not have to exhaust itself 
by supporting all these insects over winter. Then by using the 
lime-sulfur in the spring, the orchardist not only kills what 
scales were left but also gets the advantage of the fungicidal 
effect of the w^ash. When the orchard is less seriously attacked 
it may be better to use lime-sulfur in the autumn or it may even 
be omitted and the spring application relied upon to keep this 
part under control. 

Thorough Spraying. — The one fundamental thing in the ap- 
plication of insecticides for scale is thoroughness. Keep everlast- 
ingly after the men who are doing the work and insist on their 
reaching every part of the trees. This is more important with 
scale than with any other insect, though it is always of im- 
portance. Take the codling moth for example. Suppose the 
orchardist sprays only half of the apples — he has protected those, 
at least in a section like New England where there is but one 
brood. But if he is going to hit only half of the apples in fighting 
scale, he might better save his time and money, and go to a ball 
game, for both will be absolutely thrown away on this spraying. 



CODLING MOTH 147 

The scales will continue to breed on the unsprayed areas and 
will soon reinfest the whole tree. 

Perhaps a little experience may be worth relating here, as it 
serves to show just where a grower is likely to get into trouble. 
It was in spraying for scale on some old apple trees at the 
Massachusetts Agricultural College. These trees had been used 
for years for testing new, and for the most part worthless, sprays 
for scale. Many of the trees had become completely covered 
with scale and were dying rapidly, and though they were not 
very valuable in themselves, they were a constant menace to 
other trees that were valuable. It did not look well for the 
college to have such a disreputable orchard around, even for 
experimental purposes. So it was decided to clean it up. It was 
sprayed as here outlined, oil in the autumn and lime-sulfur in 
the spring, and the work was done with a reasonable degree of 
thoroughness. The next season the trees were examined from 
time to time through the summer, and at first everything looked 
well, and we said, ' ' What a fine thing it was to get those old trees 
cleaned up." But gradually we began to see a few scales, and 
then more and more, till finally we were back about where we 
started. Too many of the tips of the branches had been missed 
in spraying. The next year the same program was followed, 
only these tips were looked after, and out of thirty trees that 
were literally alive with scale only two or three were found 
that had any scale at all, and these had very few indeed. 

Some Varieties Injured more than Others. — A point worth 
mentioning in this connection is the varying degree to which dif- 
ferent varieties are injured by the scale. Any neglected orchard 
that is suffering from scale will show this. Rhode Island Green- 
ing trees will be found half-dead, while Kings and Baldwins, 
under the same conditions, are in fairly good condition. 

Codling Moth. — This is the insect that is responsible for 
the wormy apple, and no one can visit our markets without 
having it borne in upon him what a fearful responsibility it is. 
Simple as the treatment for this insect is, and long as the life 
history has been well understood, the pest is still allowed to do a 
tremendous amount of damage. 



148 ORCHARD INSECTS 

The moth itself is small and inconspicuous and is seldom 
seen by the orchard man. It deposits its eggs sometimes on the 
fruit but more often on adjoining leaves or even on the bark 
of twigs and branches, where they hatch in a short time and the 
little "w^orms, " or larva?, soon attack the young apples, in most 
cases entering at the blossom end. Once inside the apple, they 
feed for about a month, principally on the inside (but occasion- 
ally working on the surface). When it has reached full size the 
larva emerges and forms its cocoon usually in a crevice in the 
bark. From this point the life history varies with different 
parts of the country. In most of New England there is only a 
partial second brood, that is most of them pass the w^inter in 
the cocoon stage. A few pass through this stage and emerge 
as moths which deposit their eggs, producing the second brood 
of "worms." The future history is practically the same as 
before, except that the later broods of the season do more feeding 
on the surface of the apples, especially where two apples hang 
together or w^here a leaf rests upon an apple. 

In States farther south there are two or more complete 
broods in a season. 

The all-important remedy in fighting the codling moth is 
spraying with poison, and usually it is the only remedy at- 
tempted. In sections where the codling moth is very trouble- 
same the following additional methods are practised: 

First, the rough bark is scraped from the trees to reduce 
the number of hiding places for the larva? when they emerge. 

Second, bands of burlap are put about the trees as traps 
under which the larvse will spin their cocoons. These bands are 
removed from time to time and the insects which are found under 
them are killed. 

Third, the windows of storage houses are kept screened so 
as to prevent the escape of the moths which may have passed 
the winter as larv^ in barrels or elsewhere. 

But, as before suggested, the all-important method of con- 
trol is spraying with a poison. Authorities differ as to just the 
type of spray that is best. Many western experimenters insist 
on a coarse, forcible spray which shall force the poison into the 



APHIS 149 

calyx cup. Others believe in a fine, mist-like spray which shall 
reach all parts of the tree. This is the type of spray which 
is most in favor. All agree that the spraying should be very 
thorough and that it is best to make the first spraying within a 
week or ten days after the petals fall from the blossoms, using 
3 pounds arsenate of lead paste or one and one-half pounds of 
the powdered form to 50 gallons of water. A second spraying 
is usually made three or four weeks later. In sections where 
several broods are produced it is necessary even to spray three 
or four times for this insect. 

Avoid Spraying When Trees Are in Bloom. — Another im- 
portant point is the desirability of avoiding spraying while the 
trees are in bloom. Authorities differ as to just how serious 
a matter it is, but there seems to be considerable evidence to 
show that the bees may be killed by such a spray. It is also 
probable that the pistils may be injured if the spraying is done 
just when they are in the most tender condition, which is when 
the trees are in *' full bloom." In any event there seems to be 
nothing gained by spraying when trees are in bloom, over spray- 
ing just after the petals fall. It is certainly worth while to 
avoid any chance of injuring either the bees or the blossoms. 

Aphis. — This is the most discouraging group to fight, of all 
the **bugs." So far as winning the fight is concerned the 
writer had far sooner tackle the San Jose scale. With the latter 
there is a well-defined course of treatment, and if one fallows 
this carefully there is no question about success. With the aphis 
one never knows quite what to do, and when the best possible 
has been done, the result usually leaves much to be desired. 

The life history of the aphis is as follows: It passes the 
winter in the egg state and these eggs will be found as little, 
shiny black objects looking much like weed seeds, clustered 
about the buds on last year's growth. They hatch very early in 
the spring, usually before the buds open, into little, dark green, 
almost black, lice which will be found on the expanding buds, 
and, later, on the under side of the leaves. The leaves soon curl 
up and protect the insects almost perfectly. The later genera- 
tions of the young are produced alive, and as it requires but 



150 ORCHARD INSECTS 

a few days to reach maturity and as each adult female will 
produce several young in a day, they increase with great rapidity. 
This makes their control a serious matter. 

Control—Now, what shall be done to check this insect? 
As already suggested, in the general discussion, this is a sucking 
insect and must be killed by a contact poison; that is every 
insect must he hit to he killed. When we remember how well 
they are protected and how rapidly they increase, the difficulty 
of controlling them may be realized. It is realized still more 
fully after we have tried to fight them. Nothing but the 
most thorough treatment will be effective, for if only a few 
individuals are left after a spraying they will increase so 
rapidly that in a very few days things are as bad as ever. 

The best time to fight the aphis is in the early stages, as soon 
as possible after it hatches. If some treatment could be devised 
to destroy the eggs in winter, that would be the ideal method. 
It has often been suggested that the winter spraying with oil or 
lime-sulfur might be effective, but there is much doubt in regard 
to this. Orchards which had been sprayed every year for four 
years with oil and lime-sulfur were as badly infected with aphis 
as the most neglected orchard in the neighborhood. 

The best treatmeni seems to be to delay the spring applica- 
tion of lime-sulfur (using it at the rate of one gallon to about 
eight or nine of water) until just as the buds are breaking and 
after the aphids have hatched. If the right time can be selected 
after all the aphids are hatched and before the leaves are out 
enough to be damaged or to allow the aphids to crawl in among 
them and thus be protected, and if the work is done thoroughly 
enough to destroy this first generation, then there will be no 
future generations. Later treatment, when needed, must con- 
sist in using some one of the contact sprays, either as a separate 
spray or combined with the arsenical sprays which are given for 
codling moth. On the Pacific coast, where these insects are 
troublesome and where there is a form which does not curl the 
leaves, it is the usual custom to combine a tobacco preparation 
with the poison and the fungicide of the regular sprayings and 
thus kill both types of insects and the fungous diseases. 



BUD MOTH 151 

But when all is said and done, the aphis is still a very 
difficult insect to control and it is fortunate that bad outbreaks 
of it do not occur more frequently. 

Curculio. — Both the plum and the apple curculios work on 
the apple, but the former is a far more serious pest. They are 
both "snout" beetles, but the plum curculio is of a dark, 
brownish-gray color and has a short snout, while the apple 
curculio is reddish-brown and has a long, slender snout. For 
present purposes, however, they may be considered together. 

Life History. — They hibernate as adult insects in the grass 
or trash about the orchard and emerge in the spring about 
the time that the trees bloom. They feed for a time on the buds, 
leaves and even blossoms, but soon attack the fruit, and the fe- 
males begin laying eggs in small punctures in the skin of the 
young apples, the plum curculio cutting, in addition, a crescent- 
shaped incision above the incision where the egg is deposited. On 
apples most of the eggs do not develop and the damage results 
from the scars, which cause the fruit to become misshapen and 
unsalable. With plums and peaches the larva3 usually do develop 
and produce the white "worms" of the fruit, all too common in 
many orchards. 

The most effective treatment for the curculio is spraying 
with arsenate of lead, using 3 pounds of the paste or one and 
one-half pounds of the powder to 50 gallons of water before the 
blossoms open, and a second application of the same materials 
within a week after the petals fall from the blossoms. This latter 
is the same spray which is most important for the codling moth, 
so that one kind of treatment will control these two serious pests. 

Bud Moth. — This is a very interesting insect from the 
standpoint of its life history, which is quite unusual. The egg 
hatches in the summer and the little "worm" is dark brown 
with a shiny black head. It grows to perhaps an eighth of an 
inch in length and then prepares a little nest for the winter. 
This little nest or burrow is usually located in some crevice of 
the bark near a bud, and considerable experience is necessary 
to find it, as it is very difficult to detect. About the only indica- 
tion of its whereabouts is a bit of leaf, or a small scale of bark, 



152 ORCHARD INSECTS 

attached to the branch. On poking about with a pin, however, 
the searcher will find a little web and soon is rewarded by find- 
ing the little silk-lined tunnel and in it the little ' ' worm. ' ' 

As soon as the weather begins to warm up in the spring, and 
the buds begin to break, this little fellow crawls out of his winter 
quarters and establishes himself in the centre of the expanding 
cluster of leaves and blossoms from some terminal bud. Here he 
develops, feeding on the leaves and blossoms and drawing them 
together in a rather compact bunch by fastening the ends together 
with silk threads. 

Spraying. — Once the larva gets inside this cluster it is 
perfectly safe. No amount of spraying can touch it, as it feeds 
on the inside. The only time when it is feasible to attack this 
enemy is when it goes from its winter quarters to the opening 
buds and leaves. The larva eats its way into this cluster of 
leaves, and if the trees can be sprayed just before it crawls from 
winter quarters it can be poisoned. But the poison must be 
strong. Five to ten pounds of arsenate of lead paste or half 
that amount of the powder to fifty gallons of water will be none 
too strong. And the spraying must be thorough; every bud- 
cluster must be reached. 

The amount of damage which this insect does in some seasons 
is very great, but the insect is so inconspicuous that its presence 
is usually not even suspected. Practically the entire crop of 
certain varieties is sometimes destroyed by the bud moth and 
the loss attributed by the growers to unfavorable weather at 
blossoming time. 

Canker Worm. — There are two types of canker worm, differ- 
ing principally in the fact that in one case the eggs are laid in 
the autumn and in the other case in the spring. In both types 
the insect pupates in the soil and the wingless adult females crawl 
up the trunk of the tree and deposit their eggs in clusters or 
sheets upon the branches. Here they hatch about the time the 
leaves are well expanded into small ''measuring- worms'* and 
begin feeding. 

Their presence can usually be detected by shaking the 
branches of the trees, when each little **worm'' will drop from 



TENT-CATERPILLAU 153 

the leaves and hang by a thread. Another good method is to go 
under the trees and look up through the tops, when the small 
holes eaten out where the little larvas have been feeding will 
be readily seen. 

Ordinarily canker worms are not troublesome, frequently they 
will not be seen for years, but when they do come in force, look 
out for trouble. It will require sharp, efficient work to keep 
them in check. 

Methods of Combating. — There are two principal ways in 
which these insects may be combated. The best way, by all 
odds, because it fits in with the fight against other insects, is 
to spray with arsenate of lead or some such poison. Usually 
the spraying for codling moth will attend to the canker worms 
as well. And yet instances are seen where the most energetic 
and up-to-date orchard men have been literally swamped by a 
bad outbreak of this pest. 

Where, for any reason, one expects such an especially severe 
attack from them, it is well to band the trees with some sticky 
substance to catch the wingless female insects as they crawl up 
the trunk. If no crack is left underneath the band through 
which the female can make her way, and if the bands are kept 
sticky for a long enough time, the method is decidedly effective. 
For the fall canker worm October and November, and for the 
spring species IMarch and April, are likely to be the months 
during which the females move up the trunk. 

In this connection it is worth calling attention to the fact 
that the stirring of the soil in cultivated orchards makes it 
difficult for canker worms to pupate with any degree of com- 
fort and security. 

Tent-caterpillar. — This is a leaf-eating caterpillar of the 
** first magnitude." A few nests of them in an apple tree will 
strip it of leaves about as completely as the cold of winter can. 

The eggs are laid in the summer in curious bands which may 
be discovered about the twigs during the winter when the leaves 
are off. These eggs hatch with the first warm days of spring and 
the little bits of black, hairy caterpillars may be found clustered 
about the expanding buds in the vicinity, waiting for the leaves 



154 ORCHARD INSECTS 

to come out to give them a "square meal." Getting such an 
early start as they do and being provided with an insatiable 
appetite, they come very near to keeping up with the leaves 
Avhen there is a bad attack of them. This makes it necessary to 
use drastic measures with them when they once get a start in an 
orchard. Few insects can make an apple tree look more desolate. 

Remedy. — Where trees are attacked badly by this insect it 
will usually be necessary to give a special spraying with arsenate 
of lead before the blossoms open, else they may get so large 
that it will be difficult to kill them with any ordinary dose. If 
they have been allowed to get a start in the orchard it is simply 
a question of using poison strong enough and they can be killed. 
Four to six pounds of arsenate of lead paste to fifty gallons of 
water will be found none too strong. It is also worth noting 
that where orchards are spraved while dormant with lime-sulfur 
at the usual strength there is generallv no trouble from the 
tent-caterpillar as the eggs are usually all destroyed. 

The Railroad Worm or Apple Maggot. — There is not much 
satisfaction in discussing this insect because, up to date, there 
has been so little discovered that can be done for it. 

Life History and Habits. — The adult insect is a little fly 
which deposits its eggs just under the skin of the apple. This 
egg-laying is likely to occur at any time during the summer and 
on hatching the little maggot burrows through the flesh of the 
apple. If there are several maggots in one apple the fruit may 
be completely riddled. An affected apple has a peculiar pitted 
appearance on the outside, the sunken areas being of a different 
color from the balance of the surface. On cutting open the apple 
the flesh will be found to be a net-work of little tunnels. The 
first tunnels made by the little worm after hatching, usually 
close up and appear merely as little hard threads running 
through the flesh. The later tunnels remain open. An apple 
attacked by this insect is practically worthless as human food, 
but may be fed to stock. 

It is a curious fact that the apple maggot seems to have very 
decided preferences for certain varieties. In a general way 
those varieties which are soft in flesh and mild in flavor seem 



BORERS 155 

to be especially acceptable to it. Such varieties as Hubbard- 
ston, Porter and Tolman Sweet may be badly attacked, while 
adjoining trees of other varieties are little injured. 

Destroij the Wind-falls. — About the only generally accepted 
thing to do for this pest is to destroy the wind-fall apples. If 
one has any number of trees and attempts to do this by hand it is 
a good-sized contract. But if it can be arranged to run hogs or 
sheep in the orchard they will effectually clean up the wind- 
falls. The one objection to these animals in the orchard is that 
they do not always wait for the apple to drop before they eat it, 
and they are likely to clean up not only apples but leaves on 
low-hanging branches. In many old orchards, however, where 
there are no branches near the ground this objection does not 
apply. Hogs are especially adapted to this purpose. They 
not only dispose of the drop apples, but by their rooting they 
furnish a good substitute for cultivation and their droppings 
will enrich the soil. They are particularly good in old orchards 
on lands too steep and rocky to be cultivated. Occasionally they 
make some trouble by barking tlie trunks and branches, but this 
does not often happen if they are kept well watered and fed. 

Effect of Spraying. — The one other hopeful suggestion in 
connection with this insect is that it seems to do relatively little 
damage in orchards which are well sprayed. Some of the most 
recent experiments seem to show that it is possible to do some 
special spraying for it, using some poison combined with molasses 
to make a sweet poison which, when sprayed upon the leaves, 
attracts and kills the adult flies in the same way that poison 
fly-paper kills our house flies. Results have been conflicting, but 
in some cases this treatment has reduced the damage. 

Cultivation. — It is also worthy of note that early spring 
plowing, followed by thorough cultivation, seems to reduce con- 
siderably the damage from this pest. 

Borers. — The apple grower is likely to be troubled by two 
species of borers, the flat-headed and the round-headed apple- 
tree borers. They differ principally in the fact that the 
latter requires much more time to reach maturity than the 
former, but either one will stay in the tree long enough to make 
it look sick. All parts of the trunk and main branches are 



156 ORCHARD INSECTS 

liable to attack, but especially the lower part of tlie trunk. 
The larvae burrow in the wood, principally in the sap wood, 
and in bad cases they may completely girdle the tree. 

Clean Culture. — Trees standing in sod, or with weeds about 
the trunks, are especially liable to attack, much more so than in 
well cultivated orchards. Take the case of a single young orchard 
which was examined on account of some of the trees being badly 
attacked by borers. The land was under cultivation, but several 
patches were very weedy. Other parts were entirely free from 
weeds; and without exception the trees attacked by borers were 
those standing in weeds. This suggests one of the best methods 
of fighting this pest in sections where it has been found trouble- 
some — thorough cultivation. 

Careful Examination. — The presence of the borers may be 
detected usually by the castings or dust which is thrown out by 
the larva as it bores through the wood. In badly affected trees 
it is also shown b}^ the sickly appearance of the tree, but no one 
should ever wait for this sign. In sections where this pest is 
likely to be troublesome the trees should be examined carefully 
at least once a year, the best time being early autumn. 

Dig Out Borers. — ^When a tree is found to be affected the 
only thing to do is to cut out the borer. A good sharp knife and a 
stout wire are the usual equipment. Cut into the burrow and 
follow it up until the borer is found. Sometimes the wire is 
used to push into the hole and kill the borer without getting it 
out of the burrow. This is all right provided one is certain that 
the borer is killed, and of course it saves some cutting of the tree. 

Prevention. — It seems unfortunate that some really satisfac- 
tory method of prievention has not been devised. Various 
schemes have been suggested and some of them are certainly 
worth trying. A piece of wire screen, if put on carefully so 
that the female insect can neither crawl down behind it, nor 
deposit the egg through it where the screen rests against the 
bark, will prevent any attack on the trunk, where most of the 
trouble occurs. Another plan worth trying, in sections where 
these insects are known to be plentiful, is to wash the trunks 



PEAR PSYLLA 157 

with soft soap or whale-oil soap, made the consistency of thick 
paint. To this is added some crude carbolic acid, an ounce to 
each gallon of the wash. 

Another borer which is Avorth mentioning here is the shot- 
hole or pin borer, a small, cylindrical insect of the size of the lead 
in an ordinary pencil. It makes many small holes in the trunk 
and main branches, but, so far as known, never attacks a 
thoroughly healthy tree. If this insect is found, therefore, it is an 
indication that the trees have been damaged in some other way, 
and the cause of and remedy for this injury should be 
investigated 

INSECTS ATTACKING THE PEAR 

The pear is attacked by much the same list of insects as the 
apple. The San Jose scale is even more partial to it than to the 
apple, the codling moth attacks it, so does the curculio, and the 
canker worm is by no means averse to a pear diet. Of course 
the treatment for all these insects is the same as when they 
attack the apple. Two other insects, however, which have not 
been mentioned may be given here. 

Pear Psylla. — This insect prefers the pear and it frequently 
becomes so serious as to practically ruin an orchard. Cases are 
known where men were actually driven to cut down their pear 
trees because of the difficulty of keeping the psylla in check. 

Life History. — The adult insect is very small indeed, perhaps 
a tenth of an inch in length, and is likely to escape notice en- 
tirely unless a systematic search is made for it. The adults are 
very active, jumping and flying readily, and from this are often 
called 'Mumping lice." They pass the winter in this stage, in 
cracks and crevices or under scales of bark on the trees. With 
the first warm weather the eggs are deposited, principally upon 
the twigs. The young soon hatch and begin feeding, which 
they do by sucking the juice of the tree, attacking principally 
the leaf stems. The insect gives off a "honeydew" similar to 
that of the aphis, which coats the whole tree, trunk and ail, 
with a shiny, and later a blackish, varnish. So abundant do 
they become by successive broods, that the trees are seriously 



158 ORCHARD INSECTS 

weakened, making little growth and sometimes dropping both 
leaves and fruit. 

Control. — The psylla may be largely controlled by spraying 
with lime-sulfur and in bad cases there should be an application 
of this wash just as soon as the leaves are off the trees in the 
autumn. This ought to be followed by another application in 
the spring and both of these should be of such a strength as to 
do thorough work. If the specific gravity hydrometer test is 
made, 1.03 is the proper strength after diluting. About one 
gallon of commercial lime-sulfur to 9 or 10 gallons of water 
will usually produce this strength. "Where the dormant spray- 
ing has been neglected, or if the insects are plentiful in spite 
of winter spraying, some summer applications must be made. 
Any of the contact sprays are likely to be useful, but some 
of the tobacco extracts seem to be most efficient. If this summer 
spraying can be done just after a rain has washed off the honey- 
dew so much the better. 

Leaf Blister Mite. — Another pest which is frequently trouble- 
some on both pears and apples is the blister mite. This is not 
a true insect, but is related to the red spider of plants and to 
the mite which causes **scab" in sheep. It is entirely too 
small to be seen without the aid of a microscope, so that the 
orchardist is never likely to see it, but if he lives in an infested 
district he is likely to become altogether too familiar with its 
work. 

Habits and Injuries. — The winter is passed in the adult stage 
under the scales of the buds, where the mites collect in large 
numbers. As soon as the leaves begin to expand in the spring 
they are entered by the adults and the eggs are deposited in the 
leaf tissues. The eggs soon hatch and the old and young feed 
upon the cells of the leaf, causing the galls or blisters which are 
very characteristic. 

These are at first light-colored in the apple and reddish in the 
pear, but later turn brown when dead. This is the most notice- 
able and distinctive stage of the injury and is easily recognized 
by anj^one who once becomes familiar with it. The small brown 
blisters are scattered somewhat regularly over the surface of 



THE PEAR SLUG 159 

the leaf, giving it a peculiar and very characteristic appearance. 
In serious cases, however, the most of the leaf is affected and 
sometimes both leaves and fruit may drop as a result of the 
injury to the leaves. The fruit is itself also attacked, though 
much less commonly, and the injury is less severe and much 
less conspicuous. 

The principal injury comes through the interference with 
the functions of the leaf. The mites remain in the leaves until 
autumn, when they seek the buds and work in under the outer 
scales for the winter. 

The most convenient treatment is to spray with lime-sulfur 
in the early spring. This catches them in their winter quarters 
among the bud scales. Any of the forms of this wash which 
are used for the San Jose scale will be effective, and fortunately 
one application is usually all that is needed for both pests. In 
the event of a very serious attack Professor Parrott of New 
York, who has carefully investigated the blister mite, recom- 
mends two applications, one in the autumn and one in the 
spring, using kerosene emulsion diluted with five parts of 
water. The autumn application is likely to be most effective, 
since the mites have not yet secreted themselves in the bud 
scales. This double treatment, however, is rarely necessary. 
The mite has seldom been serious in orchards which are care- 
fully sprayed for San Jose scale each year, w^hile it is often 
seen both in neglected orchards and in those w^here the spraying 
is done carelessly. 

The Pear Slug. — The foliage of the pear, plum, quince and 
cherry is likely to be attacked by a shiny, olive-green little slug 
with a brownish head. Frequently the first intimation one has 
of any trouble is to notice that some trees in the orchard are 
turning brown as though from the effects of dry weather. A 
closer examination will show these little slugs scattered over the 
upper surface of the leaves. They eat out the tissue of the 
leaves till only the ribs and the epidermis of the lower surface 
remain. The leaves turn as brown as in winter and are later 
sometimes replaced by a new crop. The slugs spend the winter as 
larvas in the soil and emerge in late spring or early summer. 



160 ORCHARD INSECTS 

The pest is easily controlled by spraying with arsenate of 
lead or any similar poison. Contact poisons may also be used 
and even fine dust or water is effective. 



INSECTS ATTACKING THE STONE FRUITS 

There are not nearly so many serious insect enemies of the 
stone fruits as of the pome fruits. Probably this is due in con- 
siderable part to the more pungent taste of the foliage of most 
of the stone fruits. However, there is no real dearth of insect 
enemies, even of the stone fruits. 

The peach, like the rest of its relatives, is attacked by very 
few insect enemies. The San Jose scale, the plum curculio and 
the aphis are all likely to attack it, especially the first named, 
but about the only '' specialty " in the insect line is the borer. 

Peach Tree Borer. — ^]\Iost people who grow peach trees are 
familiar with this pest. Its presence in the tree is shown by a 
sticky gum which is thrown out in large quantities at or near 
the surface of the ground. 

Life Cycle. — The adult insect, which one rarely sees, is a 
very pretty moth, looking, however, much more like a wasp. It 
is variously marked with black, brown and several shades of 
yellow, and the two sexes are quite unlike. The eggs are laid 
throughout the summer on the bark and usually well down on 
the trunk. The larva, on hatching, burrows into the inner bark 
and sap wood, where it feeds, causing the copious production 
of gum just mentioned. Here it feeds for nearly a year, ceas- 
ing operations only during the winter, and emerges during the 
early part of the summer to begin the round of life again. 

Big out the Borers. — The orchardist is likely to have little 
difficulty in identifying the work of this insect. The gum already 
mentioned is the first indication. On digging into this the brown- 
ish castings of the larva will be found, and a little searching 
with^a knife will soon disclose the burrow and later the larva 
itself. Sometimes the larva will even be found outside the tree 
in the mixture of gum and castings. A small, sharp-pointed 
trowel will be found an excellent implement to work with. It 



THE CHERRY APHIS 161 

can be used to dig a\^'ay the gum and some of the surface soil, 
and may even be used to follow up the burrows and locate the 
borer itself. Usually a fairly heavy wire is a useful addition 
to the equipment and a good knife ought ako to be included. 
Experience seems to differ as to the best time to dig out the 
borers, but autumn is usually preferred for the work. In south- 
ern peach districts the "worming of the trees" takes place twice 
a year, say about April and October. 

This is the remedy on which the greatest reliance must be 
placed and is frequently the only one used. Mounding up the 
trees with earth early in the season, wrapping the trunks with 
building paper and using various washes are all recommended, 
but are, after all, only makeshifts. 

The plum curculio perhaps deserves some further mention in 
connection with its work on plums and peaches, though it has 
already been discussed under apples. The larva is the white 
"worm" so often found about the pits of plums and peaches. 
The injured fruit usually drops prematurely, sometimes when 
very small and green, and at other times they merely ripen 
prematurely. Often this dropping is not a serious matter, as it 
serves merely to relieve the tree from an overburden of fruit. 
But when the tree has set a light crop, the loss from curculio 
may be a very serious matter. 

The spraying already discussed' is generally all that it is 
worth while to attempt in the way of remedies. The jarring 
of the trees to make the insects fall upon a sheet and thus give 
an opportunity to destroy them, while it is usually an entirely 
effective method, is too slow and expensive to be warranted under 
most conditions. 

The Cherry Aphis. — The cherry has a special aphis of its 
own which attacks especially the tips of vigorous shoots and 
often does very spectacular work, especially on the big, sweet 
cherries. On young trees, which are making long, vigorous 
shoots, each shoot will be terminated by a cluster of curled 
leaves which later turn brown. The insect itself is dark brown 
or black and large compared with other aphids. But the general 
treatment is the same. 
11 



162 ORCHARD INSECTS 

QUESTIONS 

1. Contrast insects witli biting moutli-parts and those with sucking 

mouth-parts. 

2. What three things make the San Jose scale especially dreaded by 

orchardists ? 

3. What kinds of plants are attacked by this insect? 

4. What are the principal remedies used to combat the scale? 

5. Give reasons why the spraying for scale should be especially thorough. 

6. Give some idea of the damage done by the codling moth or apple 

worm to the American apple crop. 

7. WTiat methods should be used in combating this insect? 

8. Outline the life history of the aphis. 

9. Give methods of controlling the aphis. 

10. Describe the damage to the apple from attacks of the curculio. 

11. Outline the life history of this insect. 

12. What remedies should be used? 

13. Describe the life history of the bud moth. 

14. How is it combated? 

15. Tell what you can of the canker worm and its work. 

16. How is it controlled? 

17. Tell how to combat the tent-caterpillar. 

18. Describe the life history of the railroad worm, or apple maggot. 

19. What methods are recommended in fighting this insect? 

20. Give directions for controlling borers. 

21. Give a list of insects attacking the pear. 

22. Wliich of these is most destructive in your section? Give methods 

of controlling it. 

23. What are the serious insect enemies of the stone fruits? 



CHAPTER XII 
DISEASES OF FRUIT TREES 

As in the case of insects, the writer makes no claim in the 
present chapter to anything like a complete list of the fungous 
troubles which may beset the orchard owner. He merely hopes 
to give some suggestions, taken principally from personal ex- 
perience, which may help the student and the orchardist in 
recognizing the more common pests and in deciding what to do 
for them. 

Importance of Knowing Why. — To the student, the fungous 
diseases of fruit trees form an extremely interesting group of 
organisms, one that he likes to examine and to study. To the 
orchard owner they are a pestiferous collection of annoying 
troubles against which he must be constantly on his guard. But 
even with the practical orchard man it is very desirable that he 
should give them sufficient study to know what methods are 
best and why they are best. This latter point has received much 
study. It has always seemed to the writer that almost anyone 
ought to do better work if he knew why he did it in a certain 
way rather than in some other way. If the man who sprays 
understands that when he leaves live San Jose scales on the tips 
of a lot of branches he is likely to have the entire tree reinfested 
because the scales breed all through the season and crawl down 
onto the part he sprayed ; if he understands this he is far more 
likely to do good work than if he is merely told to spray 
thoroughly. If in cutting out fire blight, he understands just 
why he cuts as he does and why he disinfects his shears, he is 
much more likely to do his work properly than if he is merely 
' ' shown. " So it seems worth while to understand something of 
the life history of these fungous diseases that cause so much extra 
work to the orchardist and to know just how the fungicides 
affect them. 

Nature and Types of Fungus. — The fungus is merely a very 
low form of plant life. It does not manufacture its own food, 

163 



164 DISEASES OF FRUIT TREES 

as the apple tree does, out of air and water and various other 
ingredients, but it allows the tree to do this and then it comes 
in and steals the manufactured foods. It is a robber pure and 
simple. And in order that it may absorb these manufacturecl 
foods such as sugar and starch, it has to establish a very intimate 
contact with the host plant (and a very unwilling host it is). 

Sometimes it grows on the surface with very slight attach- 
ment to the host, as in the case of mildews, and such a disease 
may be treated by the use of dry sulfur dusted upon the leaves 
after the fungus has become established, because practically all 
of the fungus is spread out there open to attack. 

Again, the fungus has a much more intimate connection with 
the host, although still growing on the surface. Such a type is 
the apple scab. In this case a large part of the fungus is im- 
bedded in the host, and treatment, after the fungus has become 
established, is of relatively little value. 

Lastly we have a type of fungus which grows wholly or 
largely within the host. The black knot of the plum is such a 
fungus. Here the fungus is entirely safe from attack after it 
once enters the host and until it emerges in the black knots of 
the fruiting stage. 

The most rational treatment for all fungous diseases is that 
which attempts to prevent their ever gaining a foothold on the 
host, and we are enabled to give our trees this kind of protec- 
tion because men have discovered certain substances which are 
harmless to the host plant but which will kill the fungus. Fre- 
quently the margin of safety is ver^^ slight and a substance to be 
effective against the fungus must be of such a strength or such 
a composition as to come very near to injuring the host plant. 

Sometimes varying conditions of weather or of the plant 
cause the fungicide to pass the margin of safety and become 
injurious to the host as well as to the fungus. Bordeaux mixture 
is one example of this. As sprayed upon the apple tree it is 
probably in the form of copper hydroxide, or some similar com- 
pound, and in this form it does not hurt the apple tree but does 
destroy the apple scab. But under certain weather conditions 
the chemical form of this fungicide undergoes a change which 



SCAB 165 

makes it dangerous to the apple and we have the apples on the 
tree "russeted'' and the leaves of the tree damaged so that they 
turn yellow and fall. 

Action of a Fungicide. — ^IMost fungicides become effective 
against the fungus by entering its cells and destroying its 
tissues. For example, the spore of the fungus becomes lodged 
upon the leaf of the host plant and, the conditions of heat and 
moisture being favorable, it germinates much as a grain of 
wheat might do, sending out a little germ tube which grows about 
over the surface of the leaf and finally enters the tissues, either 
by way of one of the breathing pores or by actually working its 
way through the tissues. Now if the germ tube is able to do all 
this without encountering any injurious substance, it establishes 
itself within the host and goes on thriving. But if the tree 
has been properly sprayed, then the little germ tube in its 
wandering prior to entering the host comes in contact with 
some of the fungicide, absorbs it into its tissues and is thereby 
destroyed. 

This is the whole story in a few words and the aim of the 
man who sprays should be to do his work so thoroughly that 
no wandering fungus can escape coming in contact with a 
particle of the fungicide used, whether this be lime-sulfur or 
Bordeaux mixture or plain copper sulfate. 

SPECIFIC DISEASES 

Now let us consider a few of the more important specific 
diseases. They may perhaps be considered in two sections, those 
attacking the pome fruits and those attacking the stone fruits, 
because it so often happens that a particular disease attacks 
both the apple and the pear, for example, or the peach and 
plum. 

DISEASES OF POME FRUITS 

Scab. — This list may be very appropriately headed by the 
scab or black-spot, which stands in about the same relation to 
apple diseases as the codling moth does to apple insects. It 
attacks fruit (Fig. 71), leaves and twigs. On the fruit it 



166 DISEASES OF FRUIT TREES 

produces very characteristic spots which are a peculiar olive 
green in the early stages but soon become blackened, the skin 
usually breaking about the margins of the spot. In very bad 
cases the spots coalesce and the fruit may crack open nearly to 
the core (see Fig. 90). On the leaves the spots are usually 
nearly circular in outline, at least in the beginning, and are of 
a peculiar light green color which gradually changes to brown 
as the tissues die. In many cases the leaves wrinkle in a peculiar 
manner, due to the growth of the surface being retarded irregu- 
larly. The scab passes the winter upon the old leaves in the 
orchard and the spores reinfest the trees the following spring 
from these old leaves. 




Fig. 71. — Scab, or black-spot of the apple. This 13 the most serious of all the apple diseases, 
but can be controlled by thorough spraying. 

Susceptibility to Scab. — There is a very marked difference in 
the relative susceptibility of different varieties of both pears and 
apples. Among pears the Flemish Beauty is peculiarly liable 
to attack and the crop is frequently ruined, many specimens 
being cracked nearly to the core, while adjoining trees of 
Bartlett may be relatively little affected. With apples the 
Fameuse, Rhode Island Greening, Mcintosh and Spy are among 
those which are especially subject to attack. 

The treatment for scab, in either pears or apples, consists 
in spraying with lime-sulfur or Bordeaux mixture, and the 
number of applications varies with the locality, the season and 
the variety. If a bad attack is expected the trees should be 
sprayed before the blossoms open, just after they fall and once 



BLOTCH 167 

or twice thereafter at intervals of two to four weeks. The 
relative importance of these sprayings will vary with the season. 
If the weather is dry during the early part of the season and wet 
at the last part, a single late spraying may give better results 
than two or three early ones. 

Rust. — Similar forms of this disease attack the apple, pear 
and quince. It is one of those peculiar diseases which at one 
stage lives on one host plant and at another stage on another 
host. In this case the second host, with all three forms of the 
disease, is the cedar tree. On this it forms the peculiar rough 
brown knots known as ''cedar-apples," and authorities agree 
(and common experience bears them out) that one of the first 
things to do, where it is at aU possible, is to get rid of the cedar 
trees. 

On apple leaves the rust appears as small roughened spots, 
generally in the form of a distinct ring. The tissue of this ring 
is thickened and on the under surface of the leaf there are 
numerous little protuberances, while on the upper surface the 
tissue turns yellow and finally a bright orange. On the fruit 
the disease is less conspicuous, but appears about the same as on 
the under surface of the leaves. 

Varieties of fruits differ greatly in their susceptibility. 
Among apples the Wealthy is conspicuous for its liability to the 
disease, and the bright orange spots will be found on the leaves 
of this variety if there is any of the disease in the neighborhood. 

When the disease cannot be controlled by destroying the 
cedar trees, the only thing to do is to resort to spraying and the 
same applications given for the scab are sufficient to keep this 
disease more or less in check, though they will not entirely 
eradicate it. It is much more troublesom^e in southern sections 
than farther north. 

Blotch. — This is a relatively new disease and is much more 
common in the Middle West than elsewhere, but is sometimes 
found in most apple sections. It resembles the scab very closely 
and is often mistaken for it, but on the fruit it is apt to be 
scattered rather uniformly over the entire surface, while the 
scab is confined to one side of the fruit. The blotch also makes 
a less compact growth on the areas affected. It produces cankers 



168 DISEASES OF FRUIT TREES 

upon the twigs and branches and peculiar light brown spots 
upon the leaves. It Vv'orks later in the season than the scab, 
necessitating, where serious, one or two sprayings after the last 
spraying for scab. 

Cankers. — There are a number of diseases which attack the 
twigs, branches and even the trunks of apple trees (and less 
frequently of pears and quinces), producing ugly roughened 
brown areas. Sometimes the diseased section is very well de- 
fined with a distinct line marking its boundary where the dis- 
eased tissue has shrunken and broken away from the adjoining 
healthy tissue. In other cases, as the European canker, there 
are many concentric rings or folds where the tree has repeatedly 
attempted to heal over the wound and each time the fungus has, 



m-^:. 





Fig. 72. — Apple canker. There are several different diseases which pass under the general 
name of canker and some of them are quite serious. 

during its season of rapid growth, gotten the upper hand 
(Fig. 72). 

Treatment. — These cankers vary greatly in the organism 
which causes them and in the appearance, but the general line 
of treatment is much the same. There are three ways of fight- 
ing such diseases. 

First, all affected twigs and branches which can be spared 
should be cut out and burned. 

Second, in case the branch is too valuable to be spared, or 
in the event of a canker spot on the trunk, the diseased tissue 
should be cut out carefully and then the wound painted over 
as in the case of wounds made in pruning. For the preliminary 
work of cutting out, a light, sharp hatchet will be found very 



FIRE BLIGHT 169 

satisfactory, and the smootliing up of the wound may be done 
with a knife or a heavy chisel. 

Third, the trunk and branches of the trees should be care- 
fully sprayed whenever an application of any fungicide is made 
to the orchard. In particular they should be given a thorough 
spraying before the buds start in the spring. 

These three lines of attack will generally keep things fairly 
well under control, though cases are found where the attacks 
are so bad as to make the task of cleaning up the trees almost 
hopeless. 

Sooty Blotch and Fly Speck. — These two diseases are very 
similar, the difference in appearance being that suggested by 
the names. Some observers have even considered them as two 
forms of the same fungus. They are both superficial, with very 
little attachment to the host, and can frequently be entirely 
rubbed off with a cloth. They injure the appearance of the fruit 
so as to render it unsalable. There is usually little or no trouble 
with them in orchards that are sprayed for scab, but occa- 
sionally a later spraying may be necessary. 

Fire Blight. — This is one, of the most serious diseases of the 
pome fruits, both because it injures the trees so severely and 
because the methods of eradicating it are so expensive. It 
attacks pears, apples and quinces, as well as many allied plants, 
such as mountain ash, hawthorns, and crab apples. The dis- 
ease is most noticeable where it attacks the tips of vigorously 
growing shoots. Here it works rapidly, killing both leaves and 
twigs and causing them to turn brown and eventually nearly 
black, especially on the pear. It will also, on bearing trees, 
attack the fruit spurs, where it does more serious, though less 
spectacular, damage, because new terminal shoots are easily 
grown, but new spurs are grown with great difficulty. By follow- 
ing down the spur or twig the disease frequently becomes estab- 
lished on the main branches or even the trunk, where it produces 
what is popularly known as *' body blight." 

The Cause. — The disease is caused by a bacterium which 
works in the tender parts of the twig, largely in the cambium 
layer, and during the actively growing stage the organisms may 



170 DISEASES OF FRUIT TREES 

be found some distance below wbere there is any outward sign 
of the disease. It winters over in the old, diseased tissues and is 
spread in the spring to the growing shoots, largely through the 
instrumentality of insects, particularly bees. Bearing apple 
trees may often be seen with one-quarter of the fruit spurs dead, 
and in every spur the infestation came through the blossoms, 
doubtless having been carried by the bees in their visits to the 
blossoms. 

There is a marked difference in the susceptibility of varieties, 
the "Wealthy and Rhode Island Greening, among apples, and 
the Bartlett, Clapp and Flemish Beauty, among pears, being 
especially liable to attack, while the Mcintosh and Baldwin 
apples and the Anjou and Seckel pears are much less so. 

The Remedy. — The disease cannot be influenced by spraying. 
The only satisfactory remedy is to cut out the diseased parts, 
and the best time to do this is in the autumn. If all the dis- 
eased areas can be cut out and burned during the dormant 
season there will be no outbreak in the spring. Of course this 
cannot always be done, but systematic effort will go a long way 
towards it. If the work can be done in the autumn before the 
leaves fall, so much the better, as the affected areas are more 
easily located then. The diseased shoots should also be cut 
during the growing season, though this is a less efficient time than 
the other. Great care should be taken to get well below the 
diseased portion in this cutting so as to be sure that all the 
bacteria are removed. 

The shears or knife with which the cutting is done should be 
disinfected after every cut to prevent any germs being carried 
to healthy tissue; otherwise this cutting may really spread the 
disease from branch to branch. For this disinfecting a solu- 
tion of corrosive sublimate is used (1 part to 1000). A cloth 
or sponge dipped in this may be used to wipe the shears, or it 
may be carried in a can and the shears dipped into it. In the 
winter work all affected parts which are cut out should be 
gathered up and burned. This is not so important in sunmier 
work, since the parts removed are soft and soon dry up and 
kill the bacteria. 



BROWN ROT 171 

In addition to this active work of control it is well to keep 
the trees in only moderate growth. Withhold nitrogenous fer- 
tilizers and cultivation, perhaps seed down the orchard and do 
not prune heavily in winter. 

DISEASES OF THE STONE FRUITS 

Brown Rot. — This attacks practically all of the stone fruits 
but esi3ecially the plum and jjeach. It is most conspicuous on 
the fruit, causing it to turn brown and shrivel and eventually 
to dry up. The fruit also becomes covered, as the decay ad- 
vances, with a powdery material, the spores of the disease. 
Fruit in clusters is especially liable to attack, and thinning 
should be practised so that no two fruits may touch. The 
disease may also attack the blossoms and even the spurs, fol- 
lowing down from the fruit or blossoms. Damp and warm 
weather is especially favorable to its spread and the rapidity 
with which it works when the trees are not carefully sprayed 
and when all the conditions are favorable for the disease is 
something alarming. It passes the winter largely in the mum- 
mied fruits which frequently remain hanging to the trees until 
the following season. 

Efforts to control the disease should be along two lines. In 
the first place all of these mummied fruits should be destroyed 
if possible. They may be shaken off the trees and then either 
gathered up and destroyed or else buried or plowed under. 
The second line of attack is by spraying. The trees should be 
given a thorough spraying with lime-sulfur, at the winter 
strength, applied shortly before the buds swell in the spring. 
Strong copper sulfate solution is satisfactory, if more con- 
venient, and may be used if there is no San Jose scale in the 
orchard. Then the trees should be sprayed later with self- 
boiled lime-sulfur. When a bad attack is feared, three applica- 
tions should be made: The first perhaps three or four weeks 
after the blossoms fall, again two or three weeks later, and a 
third time two or three weeks after this. Under less serious 
conditions one spraying may be all that is needed and this 
should be probably six weeks to two months after blossoming. 



172 



DISEASES OF FRUIT TREES 



In any case care should be taken not to spray these fruits, espe- 
cially peaches, so late that the spray will still be on them at pick- 
ing time, as it detracts very seriously from their attractiveness. 
Peach Scab. — This is a very common disease on many 
varieties of peaches, producing small, blackish spots which may 
be so plentiful as to make practically one whole side of the fruit 
black. The growth of the side attacked is retarded so that the 
fruit becomes one sided, and in bad cases this side frequently 
cracks open. Fortunately the treatment just outlined for the 
brown rot will also entirely check the peach scab. 




Fig. 73. — Black-knot of the plum, showing how new knots will start from the old stubs 
when these are not cut back far enough. 

Leaf Curl. — This is a very striking disease and one which it 
is very easy to recognize. It attacks all parts of the tree, 
leaves, branches, flowers and fruit, but is so inconspicuous on 
all parts but the leaves that it usually escapes notice. The leaves 
thicken, curl up, and are often highly colored in certain parts 
and in others of a light yellowish green. As the disease advances 
the leaves turn brown and soon fall, causing a severe loss of 
vitality to the tree, which not only loses the food which the leaves 
would have produced had they remained healthy, but also is 
further exhausted by being obliged to put on this second crop 
of leaves. The spores of the disease live over winter on the 
bark and gain entrance to the buds when growth starts in the 



BLACK-KNOT 



173 



spring. The spread of the disease is markedly favored by cold, 
damp weather in the spring. 

It may be controlled practically by a single spraying with 
lime-sulfur at the winter strength applied just before the buds 
break in the spring. 

Black-knot. — This is another very striking disease and 
attacks both the plum and the cherry, principally upon the 
smaller branches but often upon both main branches and trunk. 





Fig. 74. 




FiQ. 75. 




1^^/ 


1 / ' 


w/ 




- - K' ^0 


/ 


^^ :V 


\ 


% 


/ 


m 




i 


\/%. 


p 


1 


T 




I^m] 


I 



Fig. 74. — A plum tree badly affected with black-knot. 

Fig. 75. — The same plum tree as shown in Fig. 74 after the knots have been cut out. 
It is possible to recover trees which are very badly affected if the knots are cut out and the 
trees sprayed. 



The spores gain entrance to the tree during the spring or summer 
and grow for a season entirely within the branch. The follow- 
ing spring the affected part of the branch begins to swell and 
soon the well-knowTi knot develops. At first it is soft in texture 
and light brown in color, but gradually turns darker and becomes 
harder in texture. During late spring and early summer the 
knot is covered with a velvety appearance, which is caused by 
the production of summer spores. Later these disappear and the 
surface becomes hard and roughened. 



174 DISEASES OF FRUIT TREES 

The knots may develop in new positions or by the side of old 
knots (Fig. 73). It is "very' common for them to break out where 
a small twig joins a branch, the fungus having apparently 
gained entrance in the angle between the two where the bark is 
probably less impervious. The disease lives over in the tissues 
adjoining the old knots and breaks out again either above or 
below the knot. 

The most practical remedy is to cut out and burn the knots 
(Figs. 74 and 75). This is especially important in the spring 
before the spores are produced, but should be kept up through 
the season. Care should be taken to cut well below the knot, 
otherwise the disease may break out again as shown in Figure 74. 
Spraying, particularly just before the buds break, is also 
effective. This may be supplemented by an earlier application 
in late winter and by others during spring and summer if the 
outbreak is serious. 

QUESTIONS 

L What is a fungus? 

2. Describe the action of a fungicide. 

3c Describe the apple scab. 

4. What methods are recommended for combating tiie apple scab? 

a. VVJiat remedies are recommended for rust? 

G. Tell what you can of the disease known as blotch. 

7. Outline the methods of fighting canker. 

8. Describe the work of the fire blight. How may it be controlled? 

9. Describe peach scab. 

10. Describe leaf curl. How is it controlled? 

11. Wliat is the most practical method of controlling the black-knot of 

plums and cherries? 

12. What are the worst fruit diseases in vour district? 



CHAPTER XIII 
SPRAYING APPARATUS 

It has already been said that it pays to have a good equip- 
ment with which to work. There is as great a difference between 
an ordinary spray pump and an exceptionally good one as there 
is between a No. 3 Baldwin and an Extra Fancy Baldwin. And 
usually the best pump does not cost much more than the medium. 




Fig. 76. — Using a bucket pump on a bearing apple tree. This is a very efficient little pump 
for the money and is entirely satisfactory for a few trees. 

It is the same with buying a spray pump as with buying a suit 
of clothes. Get a good one and it will last for years and be a 
satisfaction all the time. Buy a poor one and you are sorry for 
it from the start. Moreover, the styles in spray pumps do not 
change much. 

A good spraying outfit consists of a pump at one end and a 
nozzle at the other, with more or less hose and extension-rod 
between. We will begin with the pump. 

175 



176 



SPRAYING APPARATUS 



Spray Pumps. — There are quantities of them on the market. 
Some are better than others, but most of them are good. A few 
of them are worthless or nearly so. Of course the type of pump 
one ought to have depends on whether he has six trees, or sixty, 
or six thousand; also on whether his trees are old or young, 
peach or pear, dwarf or standard. There are five general types 

, of good pumps which it seems 
worth while to mention. 

I. The huchet pump is 
shown in Figure 76. This is 
for the man with the six trees. 
And it will surprise anyone 
who has not tried it to see 
what an efficient little pump 
it is. The writer has never 
been able to figure out where 
it gets its pressure, but it 
certainly develops one. The 
good points are: (1) That it 
develops this high pressure 
and will, therefore, deliver 
a good spray; (2) that it is 
very cheap, so that anybody 
can afford one; and (3) that 
it is very simple in construc- 
tion, and consequently easy to 
repair and to operate. We 
do not mean from all this 
that it will do as good a job as a power sprayer, but it is not 
a toy, by any means. 

Its shortcomings are (1) that the operator has to be constantly 
going back to the base, of supplies after more spray material; 
(2) that it is inconvenient to move about; (3) that there is no 
agitator; and (4) that the pressure runs down quickly. And 
yet for all this it is entirely adequate for a few trees. 

II. The hnapsach sprayer is shown in Figure 77. This is not 
adapted to very tall trees nor to very large operations, but is 




Fig. 77. — Knapsack sprayer. This ia an 
excellent pump for rough ground or where- 
soever it is difficult to get about, but is rather 
heavy when one has much spraying to do. 



gPRAY PUMPS 



177 



the most convenient thing made for the man with a garden and 
dwarf or otherwise small trees. It is also especially good where 
a man wants to go over the trees in a young orchard in search 
of occasional trees affected with the tent-caterpillar or with the 
red-humped apple caterpillar. It is handy to get about with, 
one man can handle it, it agitates the liquid well and maintains 
a good pressure. On the other hand, it is heavy to carrj^ about, 
particularly in the late afternoon if one has been using it all 
day ; it requires filling rather frequently, and it has an unpleasant 



' * 

^^^t^ 




A 


■ 


^BBf "iai 


1 






m 


P 


Wm^^mWt^m 


9 


H 


[H 


H 


gi 


jjH 






Fig. 78. 



-A barrel outfit with a collapsible ladder; excellent for -working among old trees 
which hang low. 



habit of slopping and wetting the operator in the small of the 
back. On the whole it is a very efficient little pump, but, like 
most sprayers, it is more comfortable to "use it by proxy." 

III. The harrel pump (Figs. 78 and 79) is by all odds the most 
generally satisfactory of all the spraying machines. It is 
adapted to more different circumstances, and a good one will 
always give a good account of itself. If a man has only a few 
trees he can combine with one or more neighbors and the cost 
of the barrel pump Avill not be great for each one of them, 
while the satisfaction in using it will be great. Oru the other 
12 



178 



SPRAYING APPARATUS 



hand, a barrel pump will be satisfactory for a goodly nmnber of 
trees and if the owner of the large orchard gets enough outfits 
he can handle any size of orchard with them. 

The following are some of the important points in a good barrel 
pump. 

1. It ought to be mounted on the side. It is singular how few^ 
pumps are mounted this w^ay, because there seem to be good 
practical reasons for preferring it to the end-mounted pump and 




Fig. 79. — A barrel spray outfit with two extra barrels of water; a device that v>ill save 
much time where the water supply is far from the orchard. 



no reasons or none of importance for the other plan. The ad- 
vantages of the side-mount are: (1) That it brings the pump 
itself lower, thus reducing the danger of catching on trees; (2) 
that it brings the center of gravity of the whole outfit lower, 
thus reducing the danger of tipping over (Fig. 79) ; and (3) 
that the sediment in the spray mixtures (and there is usually 
more or less of this) naturally works down under the pump and 
is drawn out instead of collecting about the comers as it does 
in the end-mounted pump. 



SPRAY PUMPS 179 

2. It ought to have a good-sized air-chamber. This does 
not mean that the air-chamber should be conspicuously placed 
on top of the pump as is often the case. It can be as low down 
as desired, but it will keep the pressure much more uniform. 

3. There should be as few and as small openings about the 
pump as is compatible with the free working of the plunger and 
agitator. The splashing of the liquid through these openings 
is bad enough at best; a prize awaits the manufacturer who 
develops a pump which does not splash the operator. 

4. The pump ought to have a good agitator. As already 
suggested, most of our spray materials carry more or less solid 
material in suspension, and these ought to be distributed evenly 
with the liquid. With an inefficient agitator the operator gets 
nearly all the poison on the first few trees and the balance are 
sprayed with plain water, or nearly so. 

5. There ought to be a good strainer at the bottom of the 
pump. Even with the most careful preparation of the materials 
and the most thorough straining there is always danger of some- 
thing getting into the pump that will clog the nozzle. The 
strainer is an additional safeguard. If it can be such as can 
be readily taken off and cleaned so much the better. And if 
the actual straining area is on the bottom instead of on the 
sides of this strainer it will come nearer to emptying the cask. 

6. The pump should have all brass working parts. In these 
days of strong corrosive materials the best of pumps will wear 
cut soon enough. 

7. The valves should be simple and easily accessible. It is 
astonishing how often a valve will get stuck, even when the 
pump receives reasonably good care. The operator should know 
just where it is and how to get at it and the manufacturer should 
put no unnecessary difficulties in the way. 

8. The type of packing ought to be simple and the method of 
renewing it or of tightening it should be easy. This is an 
extremely important point. The packing is bound to wear and 
allow leakage, and no one wants to be obliged to resort to a 
machinist or a high-priced (and low-speed) plumber to get his 
pump fixed. 



180 



SPRAYING APPARATUS 



9. There ought to be an opportunity for two leads of hose 
if they are wanted. 

10. There should be a pressure-gauge. This can be dispensed 
with, but it helps one to keep track of what the pumper is doing 
and it stimulates him to do better work. 

IV. The large, double-action hand pump attached to a large 
tank is shown in Figure 80. IMany of the points discussed under 
the barrel pump apply with equal force to this type of pump. It 
has the great advantage over the barrel that it will carry more 




FiQ. 80. — A large, double-artlon, hand pump with 200-callon tank. 
but it is a man's job to do the pumping. 



An excellent outfit, 



liquid. This is especially important where the orchard is some 
distance from the water suppl}^ The chief disadvantages of this 
type of pump are that it requires a good, strong man to work it, 
and it requires an equally good team to haul it, if the orchard is 
on a side hill or if the land is rough or soft. 

V. The Foiver Sprayer. — There are four different types of 
these and many variations under some of the tjrpes. "We have in 
the first place the traction power sprayer. Here the power is gen- 
erated by the movement of the wagon wheel, which, by means of a 
sprocket wheel and chain, works a pump that compresses the air 



SPRAY PUMPS 181 

in a large chamber. This compressed air, in turn, forces the 
liquid out of the tank. The great objection to this machine is 
that the pressure runs down as soon as the wagon stops. And 
since it is absolutely necessary to stop in order to do good 
spraying on trees of any size the best orchardists have ruled 
this machine out of their list. It is all right with small trees 
where the outfit travels a considerable distance for every gallon 



Fig. 81. — Gas power sprayer. An excellent type in some respects, but it is too difficult to 

clean out the tank. 

of liquid put out, but most orchardists cannot afford so expensive 
an outfit for this one type of spraying. 

In the second place, there is the gas sprayer, shown in Figure 
81. This consists of an air-tight steel tank which holds the spray 
material, and a tube containing carbonic acid gas under pressure. 
The tube of gas is connected by suitable pipes and valves with 
the tank of liquid and when one is ready to spray he simply turns 
the valves and lets the gas into the tank. This, of course, 
exerts a pressure on the liquid and it is forced out through the 
hose. In some respects this outfit is admirable. It is relatively 



182 



SPRAYING APPARATUS 



small and light and it requires no extra man to run it. The 
two difficulties which orchardists have with it are that the 
cost of power is relatively high and that such materials as 
Bordeaux mixture and lime-sulfur tend to coat the inside of 
the tank and then peel off in flakes which constantly clog the 
nozzles. As the tank is required to stand a heavy pressure there 
is only a small opening into it and it is well-nigh impossible to 
keep it thoroughly cleaned out. 

The third type of power sprayer uses compressed air as a 
source of power. It is, therefore, essentially like the type just 
discussed, except that it uses air instead of carbonic acid gas. 




Fig. 82. — A gasolene power outfit. The most efficient power sprayer. The cut also shows 
an excellent arrangement for filling the tank and mixing the materials. 

The air is compressed by a special apparatus which has to be 
installed on the farm, and this makes the first cost high. There 
is also the same objection in reference to scaly coating from the 
inside of the tank clogging the nozzles. 

The last and by all means the most important type of power 
sprayer at the present time is that run by a gasolene engine 
(Fig. 82). The best of these engines have been perfected until 
they give relatively little trouble in running and the pumps are 
also admirably adapted to the work. Of course the great ad- 
vantage of any power sprayer over other types of pumps is the 
high and relatively constant pressure that it develops. With 



SPRAY PUMPS 



183 



p Bi 



B ^ 
P 3 




184 



SPRAYING APPARATUS 



the gasolene type the owner may also easily adapt it to doing 
other kinds of work, such as pumping and sawing wood. There 
are many different styles of gasolene outfits, from one costing 
one hundred dollars and using a one and one-half horse-power 
engine and a hundred-gallon tank, up to a twelve hundred dollar 
machine A^dth a ten horse-power engine and a three- or four- 
hundred-gallon tank. Of late several good forms of the small 
machine have been developed which seem to give promise of 
great usefulness (Fig. 83). They are especially acceptable where 



Fig. 84 a. 



Fig. 84B. 



^sm 








Fig. 84 a. — Old style of vermorel nozzle. This type has the serious weakness that the 
ejectors are constantly catching on the brancties of the tree. 

Fig. 84B. — Angle vermorel nozzle. This type has great advantages over the last; it has no 
ejectors and it delivers the spray at an angle. 

good, reliable labor is scarce. "With one of these machines a 
man, if "put to it," can do his spraying alone, and they are light 
enough to get about on relatively rough land and cheap enough 
so that the small orchardist can afford to buy one. One of these 
machines will easily take care of two or even three small 
orchards, so that if a man is on sufficiently good terms with his 
neighbors there is nothing to prevent his clubbing in with one 



NOZZLES 



185 



Fig. 85 a. 



Fig. 85B, 



or two of them and thus bringing the cost of his power outfit 
nearly down to that of a good barrel pump. 

Nozzles. — Next to the pump in importance, in fact more 
important in some ways, is the nozzle. The number and variety 
of them on the market would bewilder a novice, yet they may 
nearly all be reduced to three or four principal types. 

The Vermorel Type. — This 
is a relatively small nozzle and 
delivers a small amount of 
liquid as compared with other 
types. This shortcoming is 
usually gotten around by mak- 
ing them in clusters of two or 
more, but of course such a nozzle 
is heavy and therefore hard to 
use (Figs. 84 A and 845). This 
type gives a very fine, mist-like 
spray, but the small size of the 
orifice renders it very liable to 
clog, and tliis in turn makes it 
necessary to have some kind of 
ejector to push out the clog. 
This means a double annoyance, 

first because one must constantly p,^. 85^ .-Bordeaux nozzle. Useful 

stop and clean the nozzle and 'i^S::?^^^^;^^^^^^:^^ 
second because the ejector is lufntii'^lje^SZfuT^'' "^";^ '' ,'"" 
liable to catch upon the branches disp^iacing o"ther%T°e^s^f or most wo?k.'*^it 

T , . ^ J.X X J. seldom clogs, does not catch on branches, 

and twigs Wnen one attempts to makes a fine spray, and delivers a large 
, , . . -, p ,-, . T-, amount of material in a given time. 

spray the mside oi the tree. For 

these reasons the vermorel has largely gone out of use except 
with smaller pumps like the knapsack, where it is still the main 
type used. 

The old Bordeaux nozzle is still largely used in many sec- 
tions. It throws a relatively coarse spray, which is not suited 
to many kinds of work. It will throw a long distance, which is 
very important for high trees, and for such spraying as the 




186 SPRAYING APPARATUS 

winter application of lime-sulfur it is excellent. It is not 
likely to clog, and can be adjusted to throw anything 
from a solid stream to a fairly fine spray. The Bordeaux 
nozzle has a distinct place in any orchard man's outfit, though 
it is not well to use it for such work as codling-moth 
spraying (Fig. 85 A). 

The disc type of nozzle is shown in Figure 855. This has been 
on the market a relatively short time but is rapidly displacing the 
other types for most kinds of spraying. It has three advantages 
that will appeal to any man who has ever sprayed : First, it does 





Fig. 8G. — Long- and short-tailed hose couplings. The former are much to be preferred, 
they do not allow the hose to pull apart so easily. 



not catch on th^ branches of the trees; second, it throws a rela- 
tively fine spray and lots of it; and, third, it seldom clogs. 
For most spraying the orchardist should certainly choose this 
type of nozzle. 

The Angle of Delivery. — Any nozzle, of whatever type, is 
very much more efficient for most work if it delivers the spray 
at an angle of 4.5° instead of straight ahead. Many nozzles are 
made this way by the manufacturers, and others can be changed 
into this type by introducing a small angle connection between 
the nozzle and the extension rod. The advantage of the angle 



THE HOSE 



187 



nozzle is that the direction of the spray may be changed by 
simply twisting the extension rod, while with the straight nozzle 
the whole rod must be moved. 

The Hose. — A third important feature of the spraying 
outfit is the hose. It has little effect on the kind of spraying 
done, but it does make a difference to the man who does the 
spraying. 

The writer is very strongly in favor of a reasonably small 
hose, preferably about one-fourth inch in diameter. It is true 
there is some loss of pressure as compared with the large hose, 
but the greater ease and comfort of doing the work will far 
more than offset this loss. The following table gives the weights 
of various kinds and sizes of hose. If anyone who is accustomed 
to using the large size will once try the small size he will never go 
back again. It is like play in comparison, and anything which 
makes spraying seem playful, even in the remotest degree, ought 
to be adopted. 

Table V. — Comparison of Weights of Hose of Different Sizes 



Length 


Size 


Kind of Hose 


Weight Empty 


Weight Full 








lbs. 


lbs. 


25 ft. 


3/4 in. 


Rubber 


10.87 


13.56 


25 ft. 


1/2 in. 


Rubber 


6.66 


9.16 


25 ft. 


1/4 in. 


Rubber 


4.11 


4.45 


25 ft. 


3/16 in. 


Special cloth- 










covered 


1.00 


1.75 



When buying hose get plenty of it. The ordinary spray out- 
fit equipped with 8 to 15 feet of hose is a ' ' delusion and a snare. ' ' 
The operator has to adjust his machine almost as carefully as he 
would a cannon in order to even hit the tree. Twenty-five feet 
is the least any outfit ought to have, and if two leads of hose 
are used let one be twenty-five or thirty feet and the other fifty. 
With the small hose this is not unduly heavy and the spraying 



188 SPRAYING APPARATUS 

can be done with an ease and comfort and thoroughness im- 
possible with the short lengths (see types of couplings, Fig. 86). 
The Extension Rod. — In addition to these more important 
parts the outfit should have an extension rod on each lead of 
hose. This may be either an iron rod or a bamboo lined with a 
brass tube. The latter is preferred because it is much lighter 
and its larger size makes it easier to handle, but the iron rod is 
certainly much cheaper and does not break as easily. There 
should also be at least one, and preferably tAvo cut-offs for each 
lead of hose. It is absolutely necessary to have one at the base 
of the extension rod so that the operator may shut off the liquid 
at will, and it is very desirable to have a second one at the 
pump, if there are two lines of hose, so that in case of accident 
to one line it may be shut down for repairs, while the other may 
continue to operate. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the good and bad points of the bucket pump? 

2. Discuss the knapsack sprayer. 

3. What can you say of the barrel pump? 

4. Give the important points of a good barrel pump. 

5. "\Aliat are the advantages of the double-action hand pump? 

6. Name the different types of power sprayers. 

7. Give the special advantages of each type. 

8. Describe the Vermorel type of nozzle. 

9. What are the advantages of the disc tj^pe of nozzles? 

10. \Yhj is an angle nozzle preferred to a straight one? 

11. Give some points to be considered in the purchase of spray hose. 

12. WTiat type of extension spray-rod would you prefer? Give reason. 

13. What power sprayers and what type of hand sprayers are used in 

your section? 



CHAPTER XIY 

SPRAYING MATERIALS 

The selection of spray materials is just about as confusing to 
the beginner as is the choice of spray apparatus. There are 
many manufacturers in the field and each one is putting on the 
market his own special brand of each of the different materials, 
so that there are almost innumerable things to be had. If the 
orchardist wants a spray made from a copper salt he has his 
choice between Bordo-lead, Sal-Bordeaux, Pyrox, Tiger Brand 
Bordeaux and a dozen other patent preparations. If he wants 
to use sulfur in some form he is embarrassed by an even longer 
list of possibilities. He can buy commercial lime-sulfur of a 
dozen different manufacturers, or he can make his own con- 
centrate or make the home-boiled wash, or use self -boiled lime- 
sulfur. Or, again, he can use atomic sulfur, soluble sulfur, sul- 
focide or various other special forms. The list of any of these 
principal sprays is so long that even the old stager is sometimes 
in doubt. Is it any wonder if the novice feels like giving up in 
despair? Yet if we will study into the matter it is not as bad 
as it seems on the face of the returns. 

Doubtless new materials, and new combinations of old ma- 
terials, wiU continue to come along, so that what was the best 
thing possible this year may be out of date a few years to come. 
This is going to make it necessary to do some experimenting all 
the time and to keep in touch with the Experiment Stations and 
the Fruit Growers' meetings. But all orchardists should do this 
anyway. "When the list of spray materials in vogue at any one 
time is sifted down it will be found that there are really only a 
relatively small number that have to be considered. If a man 
buj^s from reputable manufacturers he is not apt to go far 
wrong, even though he may not get absolutely the best form. 

Commercial Mixtures vs. Home Mixing. — There are two 
or three general questions that ought to be discussed before we 

189 



190 SPRAYING MATERIALS 

speak of specific remedies. The most important of these is the 
question of buying- the mixtures already prepared or of buying 
the materials and preparing the mixtures on the farm: com- 
mercial mixtures vs. home mixing. There are certain things 
like arsenate of lead which cannot be made as well at home as 
they can by the manufacturer. Moreover, the price for these is 
relatively low because so many firms are manufacturing them. 
It seems, therefore, much better for anj^ grower, large or small, 
to buy ready-made stock of such materials. 

On the other hand, there are certain other things such as the 
various substitutes for Bordeaux mixture which often come at a 
high price to the orchardist and which it is relatively easy to 
make on the farm. It would seem that such mixtures might be 
prepared by the grower, at least when he is operating on a 
reasonably large scale. If a man has only a few trees probably 
it is better for him to pay the manufacturer his extra price for 
doing the mixing, rather than to bother to ''post up" on methods, 
and then go to all the trouble of getting the different ingredients 
and combining them. But for the man who has as much as 
ten acres of orchard the writer is very strongly of the opinion 
that it pays to prepare these mixtures at home. 

Classify Spray Materials. — Another point which has already 
been mentioned is the need of getting all these remedies classified 
in one's mind so that he understands which are insecticides and 
which are fungicides and which are a combination of both. 

Dry vs. Liquid Sprays. — A third general question, though 
one which just at the present time seems to be settled, is the 
question of the dry vs. the liquid spray. Up to the present time 
no very satisfactory method of applying spray materials in a 
dry state to fruit trees has come into general use. But it seems 
so desirable to get rid of the expense and annoyance of hauling 
around so much water and sprinkling it on our trees that the 
writer cannot help thinking that American ingenuity will 
some day solve the problem of satisfactory powders which can 
be put on dry. 

Copper Salts. — We come now to a consideration of some of 
the principal spray materials which are used by the fruit grower. 



COPPER SALTS 191 

Among the fungicides the two principal substances used are some 
copper salt and some form of sulfur. 

Copper Sulfate. — Of the copper salts by far the most im- 
portant is copper sulfate, which is used either in the form of a 
plain solution on dormant trees or as Bordeaux mixture. This 
plain solution has the advantage of being as easy to apply as 
water, and where the grower does not nave to fight any scale 



Fig. 87. — Spray injury on apples. Any copper salt is likely to cause this under certain con- 
ditions of weather. 

insects, especially San Jose scale, it makes an excellent dormant 
spray. It is usually applied at the strength of 3 or 4 pounds 
•of copper sulfate to 50 gallons of water. 

Bordeaux Mixture. — Where it can be used without danger, 
Bordeaux mixture is still probably the most efficient fungicide 
on the list. There seem to be two dangers from its use. On 
apples, in certain seasons, especially where there are many rains 
or a great deal of foggy weather, it may produce a russeting 
of the surface of the fruit that injures its appearance and some- 
times its keeping quality (Fig. 87). This damage is sometimes 
very severe, in particularly bad cases even cracking the fruit 
open. It affects some varieties more than others. In some 



192 SPRAYING MATERIALS 

sections where there is not much trouble from the apple scab, 
more harm than good is often done to the fruit by spraying with 
Bordeaux. Another trouble that is sometimes experienced with 
it is that it aggravates the tendency, frequently seen in fruit trees, 
for the leaves to turn yellow or brown and to fall. 

Yet with all its faults Bordeaux is such an efficient fungicide 
that it ought to be used whenever it can be without too much 
danger. For example, it ought to be used on all such fruits as 
grapes, currants and gooseberries because here it does no damage 
and these fruits are especially liable to damage from fungous 
enemies. Many good orchardists prefer to use it, particularly 
on those varieties not seriously injured by it, where apple scab is 
especially troublesome, because a considerable russeting of the 
skin is to be preferred to even a small amount of scab. 

Formulas for Bordeaux. — There are two formulas for Bor- 
deaux mixture which are in general use at the present time. One 
which is used most generally is as follows: 

4 pounds copper sulfate, 4 pounds lime, 50 gallons water. 

For those fruits or varieties which are most susceptible to 
injury, such as Japanese plums, peaches, and certain varieties of 
apples, a weaker formula is used, made as follows : 

3 pounds copper sulfate, 3 pounds lime, 50 gallons water. 

Stock Solutions for Bordeaux. — Where Bordeaux is to be used 
in any quantity it is much better to use in preparing it what are 
called ' ' stock solutions. ' ' These are prepared as follows : 

Weigh out 50 pounds of copper sulfate and dissolve it in 50 
gallons of water, by hanging it in a cotton bag in the top of a 
barrel of water. It will dissolve much more quickly in this way 
than if thrown into the barrel. In fact, it never will dissolve if 
merely thrown into the barrel, as the water immediately sur- 
rounding the crystals soon becomes saturated and as this solution 
is heavier than plain water it remains right in the bottom of the 
barrel. The amounts mentioned give us one pound of copper 
sulfate to each gallon of water. 



THE VARIOUS FORMS OF SULPHUR 193 

The ''stock solution" of lime is prepared in the same general 
way. Fifty pounds of lime is slacked in a barrel, taking care 
to use enough water to prevent the lime from ' ' burning, " as it is 
called, which makes it flaky so that it is likely to clog the nozzles. 
After it is slacked enough water is added to make 50 gallons. 

With the stock solutions thus prepared the making of a cask 
of Bordeaux mixture is a very simple matter. The ideal way 
is to have two half barrels, into one of which we measure four 
gallons of the copper sulfate solution and into the other four 
gallons of the lime water. Then add to each enough water to 
make 25 gallons. Next pour the diluted lime into the spray 
cask, add the copper sulfate solution, agitate thoroughly and the 
mixture is ready to apply. Or, better yet, the two solutions may 
be allowed to run into the cask simultaneously. A man may in- 
troduce several variations in the procedure and still be quite 
successful, but the thing which must be avoided always is mixing 
the lime and copper sulfate in concentrated solutions. This 
invariably leads to trouble, a thick, cheesy precipitate being 
formed which will clog the nozzles and will not stick to the trees, 
and is unsatisfactory in various other ways. 

Now is there anything so complicated in this operation of 
preparing Bordeaux mixture that a good, intelligent orchardist 
cannot master it? The writer would vote most emphatically 
' ' no " and has no patience with those who argue that ready-made 
Bordeaux should be bought because the farmer cannot prepare it 
properly. There may be something in the argument of saving 
time and bother, but not in the argument of ' ' lack of ability. ' ' 

The Various Forms of Sulfur. — Just at the present time 
there seems to be a very marked interest in sulfur sprays. New 
forms are constantly being introduced by manufacturers and 
many growers are using them to the exclusion of most other 
sprays. There are four forms which it seems worth while to 
discuss at some length. 

1. The Commercial Lime-sulfur Solutions. — These come as 
more or less clear, amber-colored liquids which mix readily with 
water, giving a yellow liquid. They come at various strengths, 
varying about 30° to perhaps 35° Beaume (hydrometer test), 



194 SPRAYING MATERIALS 

the test supposedly varying with the amount of sulfur in solu- 
tion. As a matter of fact a handful of salt or various other 
cheap materials will raise the strength as indicated by this 
hydrometer test just as surely as more sulfur will, so that the 
only reliable standard is the per cent of sulfur in solution. 

In preparing these commercial lime-sulfur sprays for use 
in the orchard the common method is to dilute them by taking 
a certain number of gallons of water to each gallon of the con- 
centrate. This is not a reliable method because, as already sug- 
gested, the concentrate may vary from 30° to 35° Beaume. The 
latter would give the proper strength for San Jose scale by 
diluting with Dyo gallons of water, while the former could take 
only 7% gallons of water to each gallon of the concentrate. 

A hydrometer should therefore be used to test the concen- 
trate and again to test the spray when ready to apply to the 
trees. The hydrometer is a simple instrument, consisting of a 
graduated glass tube weighted with shot at the lower end. This 
is immersed in the liquid to be tested and the lighter the liquid 
the more deeply the hydrometer sinks. The reading is taken at 
the surface of the liquid. ]\Iost hydrometers give both the 
specific gravity and the Beaume strength. Anyone can therefore 
tell by the use of this instrument, and by knowing what strength 
he should have for a certain pest, just exactly how much water 
to use, provided that he has confidence in the manufacturer and 
knows it is sulfur and not salt in the solution. This is quite a 
proviso, but most manufacturers, no doubt, intend to be honest 
and if the buyer selects a reputable brand he is not likely to get 
into any serious trouble. 

The Saving and the Cost. — The great advantage of the com- 
mercial lime-sulfur solutions is that they save all the annoyance 
and messiness of home preparation. And this is a great deal. 
They are also very simple to use. 

On the other hand, the buyer pays considerably more for a 
hundred gallons of spray by this method than he does to prepare 
his own concentrate. 

2. Home-made Concentrate. — This is the same material, in a 
general way, as the commercial, but it does not run as high in 



THE VARIOUS FORMS OF SULPHUR 195 

sulfur content. The great advantage of this form is that it can 
be made up on the farm during the winter when work is slack 
and when the labor expense is relatively small. The general 
method of preparation is as follows, though formulas and methods 
are still undergoing changes: 

Formula. — 50 pounds rock lime, 100 pounds sulfur, 50 gallons water. 

It seems to be immaterial whether the sulfur is the flour 
(finely ground) or the flowers, but the lime should be good and 
should preferably have little magnesium in it. Slack the lime in 
the kettle in which the cooking is to be done and when the slacking 
is w^ell started add the sulfur and mix thoroughly. Then add 
enough w^ater to make a thin paste. Continue boiling vigorously 
until the sulfur is all dissolved, which will usually take from 
forty-five minutes to one hour. When the boiling is finished the 
concentrate may be put into barrels and stored. If these barrels 
are perfectly tight and are filled full, no other precaution is 
necessary than to cork up tightly. If these conditions do not 
obtain then the concentrate must be covered with oil. Any oil 
which will not injure the trees and which does not take fire at the 
boiling point of water will do. The various miscible oils are used 
with entire satisfaction. There is sometimes considerable sedi- 
ment, but this does not seem to be a serious objection. 

The proper degree of dilution either with the home-made or 
the commercial, as measured by the specific gravity scale on the 
hydrometer, seems to be about as follows: For San Jose scale, 
blister mite, peach leaf curl and other spraying when trees are 
in dormant condition, 1.03. For apple and pear scab and similar 
diseases, summer spray, 1.01. For peach scab and brown rot, 
summer spray, 1.005. It is probably better not to use this material 
at all in spraying the stone fruits, especially peaches and Japanese 
plums as while it will often do no harm, it will, on the other 
hand, sometimes do serious injury to the leaves. 

3. The Home-hoiled Lime-sulfur Wash. — This was the original 
home-prepared lime-sulfur spray material and was at one time 
used very extensively. But the two forms already discussed have 
largely driven it out of use. It is still used by many growers 



196 SPRAYING MATERIALS 

who consider it the only really satisfactory form. The great 
objection to it is that only a small quantity can be prepared at 
a time, usually a single cask, and that, too, only as it is wanted 
for use, being applied hot, as a rule. 

The formulas used vary greatly in both ingredients and run 
all the way from 

15 pounds lime, 15 pounds sulfur, 50 gallons of water 
to 22 pounds lime, 20 pounds sulfur, 50 gallons of water. 

The process of making is as follows : Put the lime and sulfur 
into a large kettle with about 20 gallons of water and boil for one 
hour. Then add enough water to make 50 gallons, strain into the 
spray cask and apply at once. Authorities differ as to the objec- 
tion of allowing this mixture to cool ; for example, to stand over 
night. Frequently it is very convenient to prepare the night be- 
fore what is to be put on the first thing in the morning, and enough 
success attends this plan so that we need not hesitate to do it. 

4. The " self-hoiled'' lime-sidfur is that in which the heat 
of the slacking lime is relied upon to cook the mixture. It is a 
very mild form, being little more than a mechanical mixture of 
sulfur and slacked lime, and is useful only as a summer fungicide. 
But for that purpose, particularly for use against the brown rot 
of stone fruits, it is very efficient. 

The usual formula is as follows : 

8 pounds sulfur, 8 pounds rock lime, 50 gallons water. 

An old oil cask is a good receptacle in which to prepare it. 
The lime is placed in the bottom of the cask, and it is imperative 
that it be good, hard rock lime and not air-slacked lime, since 
the heat for cooking is to come entirely from the lime. On top 
of the lime place the sulfur. Then add hot water slowly until 
the lime is slacked, stirring carefully, as needed, to prevent the 
''burning" of the lime. After slacking is complete allow the 
mixture to stand and cook for from ten to fifteen minutes, depend- 
ing on the amount of heat generated bv the lime, keeping the 
barrel covered with an old burlap to keep in the heat. Then 



ARSENATE OF LEAD 197 

add enough water to make 50 gallons, strain into the spraying 
cask and apply at once. Kemember this is merely a summer 
fungicide and has no value for San Jose scale and relatively 
little as a dormant fungicide. 

Dry Forms of Sulfur Compounds. — At the present time the 
most interesting of the special forms of sulfur on the market are 
the dry forms in combination with other substances such as 
calcium, sodium and barium. They come as powders of varying 
degrees of fineness and dissolve fairly readily in water. Some 
of them are very promising and of course all have the advantage 
over the liquid forms that they eliminate expense in handling. 
If further experiments shall show they are efficient under all con- 
ditions and do not injure foliage they ought to prove of value. 

"Atomic sulfur" is another form. This is a very finely 
divided paste form of pure sulfur which seems promising, but 
at the present writing needs further testing. 

INSECTICIDES 

There are two general classes of insecticides : The food-poisons, 
used for chewing insects and of usually some form of arsenic; 
and the contact sprays used for sucking insects. 

In the first of these classes, at the present time, the arsenate 
of lead is used much more generally than any other form, with 
Paris green as a second. Several others are on the market and 
are used to a limited extent, but from the commercial orchard 
standpoint they may be ignored. 

Arsenate of Lead. — The great advantages of arsenate of lead 
are (1) that it is very adhesive, remaining on the leaves through 
the entire season; (2) that it is finely divided, remaining in sus- 
pension much longer than Paris green ; and (3) that it is usuallv 
harmless to foliage. This is a strong combination and it is small 
wonder that arsenate of lead is so generallv used. It is, how- 
ever, sometimes injurious to trees, and one should take every 
precaution possible to avoid trouble. 

There are two forms on the market, one of which, known as 
the tri-plumbic form, has a hisrher percentage of lead and no 
hydrogen ; while the other, known as the standard, has a higher 



198 SPRAYING MATERIALS 

percentage of arsenic but also has some hydrogen in it. This 
latter form, while more effective pound for pound in killing 
insects, is also more dangerous to plants. On such tender foliage 
as Japanese plums and the peach it is sometimes injurious. 
Arsenate of lead can be had either as a paste carrying about 50 
per cent of water, or as a dry powder. The dry form is rapidly 
replacing the paste as the cost of transportation and handling is 
less, and it is much less work to get it mixed with w^ater. 

Paris Green. — The only advantage of Paris green is that in 
some sections it is more easily secured than arsenate of lead; 
and possibly we might add a second, that is has a very distinctive 
color which prevents its ever being mistaken for anything else. 
There is now little danger that it will be adulterated, but if 
anyone wishes to test it he may easily do so. Put a small quantity 
of Paris green in a glass tube or bottle and pour on it some strong 
ammonia. If the Paris green is pure it will all dissolve, if not 
pure there will be some sediment. The value of this test rests on 
the fact that the materials generally used to adulterate Paris 
green are not soluble in ammonia, while pure Paris green is 
soluble in ammonia. When some cheap material which is soluble 
is discovered the test will lose its value. However, with our 
present laws and methods of enforcing them, there is relatively 
little danger from adulterated materials. 

It is usually recommended to use Paris green at the rate of 
four ounces to 50 gallons of water, but many orchardists use 
it at the rate of five or six ounces to 50 gallons on the theory that 
poison is cheaper than labor, and at the latter strength they are 
sure of killing the insect enemies. It is well to add an equal 
weight of lime when the Paris green is not used in combination 
with a fungicide. The lime combines with any soluble arsenic 
which may be present. 

Contact Insect Sprays. — There are four contact insecticides 
which are very commonly used, each one of which has its good 
points. 

MisciUe Oils.— First of all there are the soluble, or, more 
properly, the miscible, oils. There are several of them, but they 
all agree in being made from crude petroleum and in mixing 



CONTACT INSECT SPRAYS 199 

more or less readily with water. They are intended for use only 
on dormant trees and in particular for fighting the San Jose 
scale, and for this purpose the writer has found them very 
satisfactory indeed. They have the advantage over lime-sulfur 
that they are much less disagreeable to apply, which is certainly 
an important consideration. They will also ''creep" on the sur- 
face of the branch, thus insuring a somewhat better distribution. 
While these oils are usually bought already prepared, they can 
be easily made at home and frequently at some saving in cost. 
However, the commercial forms are usually so satisfactory and 
they are sold so cheap that it is doubtful whether it would pay 
the grower to make his own. It certainly would not except 
where he is in the orchard business in a large way. 

Whale Oil Soap. — A second material frequently used for 
sucking insects is whale oil soap, which comes as an ill-smelling, 
sticky, brown soap. Only very distant relatives of the whale 
enter into its manufacture, as any cheap fish-oil is used in making 
it. For orchard use it is well to prepare it beforehand by boiling 
the soap with a certain quantity of water. This gets it into a con- 
dition where it will readily mjx with water when wanted for use, 
and if this "stock solution" is made at the rate of two or three 
pounds per gallon it is a very simple matter to prepare a batch 
of spray for use in the orchard. It is generally used at the rate 
of one pound of the soap to about 8 to 10 gallons of water. 

Kerosene emulsion is another very efBcient remedy for such 
insects as the aphis. The chief objection to it is that it requires 
a special operation to make, but that is certainly not a serious 
matter. The formula is as follows : 

1/4 pound of hard soap, 1 gallon water, 2 gallons kerosene. 

Cut up the soap and dissolve it in the water by boiling. Then 
remove from the fire and add the kerosene; reheat and agitate 
the mixture violently. A good way to do this is to have a small 
pump, and pump the liquid back into itself until a creamy white 
mixture is produced. This is a "stock solution," and ought to 
keep for weeks or even months without the oil separating out. It 
is diluted for use according to the insect to be attacked. With 



200 SPRAYING MATERIALS 

aphids, which have very soft bodies, one part of the stock solution 
to ten or even fifteen parts of water may be strong enough. For 
those insects which are more difficult to kill, such as the San Jose 
scale, it may require one part to four or five of water. 

Tohacco Extracts. — There are a number of tobacco extracts 
on the market which are very satisfactory for sucking insects, 
especially for the aphids. In the Northwest it is customary 
in many sections, where the aphis is plentiful, to include some 
form of tobacco extract with the regular sprayings for fungous 
pests and chewing insects so that the spray kills sucking and 
chewing insects and fungous diseases at one operation. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss the importance to the orchardist of a knowledge of spray 

materials. 

2. Under what conditions is it best for the orchardist to prepare his own 

spray mixtures? 

3. What are some of the objections to the use of Bordeaux mixture? 

4. Describe the preparation of stock solutions for Bordeaux. What is 

the advantage of these solutions? 

5. Describe the making of Bordeaux mixture from these stock solutions. 

6. What is commercial lime-sulfur? How is it used? 

7. Describe the home-made lime-sulfur concentrate. 

8. Tell how to make self-boiled lime-sulfur. 

9. Give the advantages of arsenate of lead as an insecticide. 

10. Give directions for the use of Paris green. 

11. What are miscible oils? 

12. Why are oils especially valuable in killing scale insects? 

13. Give the formula for kerosene emulsion and describe the methods of 

preparing and using it. 



CHAPTER XV 
THE SPRAYING CAMPAIGN 

Disagreeable but Necessary. — If anyone were to take a vote 
of the orchard men of the country as to which is the messiest 
and most thoroughly disagreeable operation connected with grow- 
ing fruit, spraying would be elected unanimously to the position. 
There is no question about that. Neither is there any question 
that it is more important than any other one operation. We 
may neglect to prune our trees, we may fail to fertilize them 
and we may grow them in a hay field and still we may frequently 
grow some very good fruit. But the man who can proudly 
boast that he did not spray his orchard and still had a crop of 
fine fruit is in a hopeless and ever-dwindling minority. He is 
still to be found ; occasionally he even gets into a fruit meeting, 
but his days are numbered. The advent of each new pest 
makes the non-spraying orchardist more rare, until he will soon be 
v/orthy of a place in a dime museum. 

Now since spraying is so disagreeable and yet so indispen- 
sable, the thing for the orchardist to do is to use the best ma- 
chinery and the most approved materials and then to fix his mind 
on the good he is doing and not on how disagreeable the work is. 
After all. if the operator does use the best apparatus and does 
protect himself as fully as possible with gloves and a hood he 
can get through the job with a fair degree of comfort, particu- 
larly if, as suggested, he thinks about the wormy apples he is not 
going to raise. While the writer thoroughly believes this, and is 
satisfied that anyone Avho once gets at it will find that it is not 
as bad as it might be, still he has a great deal of sympathy with 
the novice who feels rather appalled at the prospect of under- 
taking the work. 

As the beginner looks over even the condensed list of enemies 
given in this book, and as he notes that this one requires spraying 

201 



202 THE SPRAYING CAMPAIGN 

after the blossoms fall and that one before the buds swell ; and 
then as he attempts to select a satisfactory spraying outfit from 
the bewildering array in even one catalogue (and usually he has 
half a dozen catalogues at the very least), it is no wonder that 
he feels as though it was a hopeless undertaking. And yet as 
he sifts matters out he finds that most of the spraying outfits are 
a good deal alike, and that most of the pests are accommodating 
enough to group themselves in such a way that a relatively few 
sprayings will control them all. So that while spraying is un- 
doubtedly bad enough, and while the necessity for it may 
properly be catalogued as one reason why the orchard business 
will not be over-done, yet any good, intelligent man will very 
soon master the essential details of the work. 

Good spraying consists in selecting the right materials, in 
getting these onto the trees at the right time, applying a uniform 
strength to all parts of the trees and in doing the work easily 
and economically and with reasonable comfort. 

Making up and Applying. — AA^e have already discussed 
every^thing except the work of making up and applying. Let 
us see what can be said to assist in this operation. 

In the first place, the orchardist should have every con- 
venience to make as easy as possible the work of preparing the 
mixtures and getting them into the spray tank. Few people 
realize how much time and mon^y are wasted by failing to 
provide for this. To begin with, have a platform sufficiently 
raised to allow the materials to run by gravity into the spray 
tank. On this platform are located the stock solutions and 
other paraphernalia used in the mixing. Know just where to 
find everything that is wanted, instead of having to hunt all 
over the place for the arsenate of lead or the strainer. A very 
convenient outfit of the kind is shown in Figure 82. Then have 
a convenient and abundant water supply. It is nothing un- 
common for a spraying gang to spend more than half the time 
loading up, and most of this is often spent in getting the water. 
Sometimes this is unavoidable, but frequently a little time and 
money spent wisely in advance will completely obviate the 
trouble. To offset the money so spent it must be remembered 



FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 203 

that the time of a spraying- gang is worth money and whatever 
conserves that time is w^orth doing. 

The ideal plan is to have a large storage tank, such as is 
shown in Figure 82, with a ball-cock to control the w^ater 
running into it. This tank fills up while the gang is in the 
orchard and is all ready w^hen they come in to fill the spray 
tank. A large gate on the storage tank allows the water to run 
from this into the spray tank in a very few minutes, frequently 
in less time than it takes to prepare the arsenate of lead and 
lime-sulfur, or whatever is being used for spraying. 

Get Things in Readiness Early. — Order the sulfur and lime 
and arsenate of lead and all the other materials and have them 
on hand. Go over the outfit and clean it up and repair it. This 
is good w^ork for w^inter or for rainy days, and will save any 
amount of annoyance when spraying actually begins. 

Have a good repair kit to take into the orchard while spray- 
ing. This outfit ought to contain wrenches of several kinds 
(particularly a stilson), pliers which will cut wire and wire for 
them to cut, washers, nozzles and extra small parts of every 
description. A few dollars invested in such a kit will save ten 
times the cost the first season in the time it will save running 
to the house, or, worse still, to the repair shop in town. 

Make the Work Comfortable. — In this matter of getting ready 
for the work, have as good an equipment as can be found to 
make the work comfortable for the men and horses. The princi- 
pal thing in this line will be gloves for the men and blankets for 
the horses. A pair of heavy leather gloves well oiled is perhaps 
as good as anything. Good rubber gloves are possibly a little 
more effective, but they cost much more, and a good rubber glove 
is a difficult thing to find. Any light blanket for the horses will 
be satisfactory. It protects both the horses and the harness, and, 
while not indispensable, is worth using, at least in lime-sulfur 
or Bordeaux spraying. Some men wear a sort of hood for the 
winter lime-sulfur work, which will frequently be found an 
acceptable thing, particularly if one 's skin is tender. 

Fundamental Principles. — In the actual orchard work a few 
cardinal principles ought to be kept in mind. 



204 THE SPRAYING CAMPAIGN 

1. Have a Definite Object in View. — Know what you are 
spraying for. Know what your pests look like, how they work 
and. what will kill them. Perhaps it may seem hardly worth 
while to mention this, but a very large proportion of the men 
who spray do not have this clear notion of why they do it. How 
often a man is heard to say that the aphis is less abundant than 
it was last year and he thinks it is because he sprayed so 
thoroughly with arsenate of lead. As a matter of fact, arsenate 
of lead does not have the slightest effect in the world on them. 
Or he may say that he must do something this year for the big 
ants which attacked his apple trees the year previous when in 
reality the ants were not hurting his trees in the least, but were 
after the honeydew given off by tlie aphis. Or that he is con- 
sidering the use of Bordeaux mixture this season for canker 
worms, when he should know that Bordeaux is regarded merely 
as a tonic by any canker worm in good health. Examples like 
these might be multiplied, indefinitely and that, too, among good, 
intelligent orchard men. So that it seems quite reasonable to 
urge the importance of having a clear idea of what to do. 

2. Spray in Time. — ]\Iany of our orchard pests are not 
affected in the least by any spraying which is not done promptly. 
The codling mcth and the bud moth are good examples of this 
class. No amount of spraying after they once gain entrance to 
the apple or the bud, respectively, will have any effect on them. 
With a great many other pests spraying is of relatively little 
value if done late, and with only a few is there any objection to 
doing it considerably beforehand. 

3. Spray TJwrougkly. — This has already been spoken of more 
than once, but it will bear repeating, as no other one point is of 
more importance. A common way of regarding spraying is to 
consider that it is like a medicine ; if the tree gets a certain quan- 
tity of it, it will be cured of its diseases. But the proper way to 
regard it is to think of it as we would of painting a barn. Paint- 
ing one side of a barn has no effect in preserving the other side. 
Neither does spraying one side of an apple affect the other side. 
The case is even stronger than this, because such pests as the 
San Jose scale may migrate to the parts that were sprayed if 



EFFECTS ARE LASTING 



205 



we have left scales undisturbed in seme places by our poor 
spraying. 

4. Let the Wind Help. — In spraying when there is a wind 
blowing if one will get at just the right angle with his tree he 
can spray into the tree and wet one side of a branch and then the 
spray will be blown back onto the other side and so the whole 
tree is reached quite as thoroughly as though there were no wind 
blowing and one sprayed from each side. Some men make a 
practice of spraying one side of their trees with one wind and 
then waiting a few days and spraying the other side with a wind 




Fia. 88. — Proper condition of apple blossoms for spraying before they open. This is often 
a very important spraying when scab is troublesome. 

from the opposite direction. This is all right if the winds are 
accommodating enough to come that way, but even then it takes 
more time to go through the orchard twice than if it can be done 
at one operation. In spraying bearing trees of good size some 
wind is even desirable, as it keeps the leaves in motion and the 
spray is apt to reach both sides more thoroughly. 

Effects are Lasting. — If the orchardist sprays year after 
year he is almost certain to fmd that conditions in the orchard 
improve from year to year. In other words, the effect of spray- 
ing is cumulative. We get some of the benefit of our 1913 spray- 



206 THE SPRAYING CAMPAIGN 

ing in 1914. This is a comforting tliought and ought to stimulate 
the owner to keep up the practice regularly. It i§ still more 
likely to be true if a whole neighborhood or section takes up 
the practice. A few poor, shiftless non-sprayers in a section 
can do a lot of damage to the whole region by keeping up the 
supply of insects and fungous spores. 

Spraying is Insurance. — In this connection the fruit grower 
ought to keep in mind a fact, which is often urged but frequently 
forgotten, that spraying is really an insurance. He can not 
always tell beforehand exactly what pests he will have, but he 
knows somew^iat definitely. He must, therefore, map out his 
program and spray accordingly, knowing that one year with 
another such a program is going to pay. And in particular 
he must not become discouraged and give up spraying because 
in some season Jones, who didn't spray, gets just as good 
results. A man does not become disheartened and condemn fire 
insurance because his house does not burn down and give him the 
benefit of the insurance. And he ought to regard spraying in 
the same light. 

The Question of Danger to Animals. — Another point which 
is often asked about is the question of the danger to animals 
which eat grass that grows under sprayed trees. And less fre- 
quently there is some concern as to the danger of the sprayed 
fruit as human food. On the first point, danger to stock, the 
situation may be thus stated: With any ordinary fruit tree 
sprayed in any ordinary w^ay with poison there is no danger 
whatever to animals which eat the grass growing under the 
tree, either in a fresh state or as hay. The Michigan Experiment 
Station investigated this matter very thoroughly a number of 
years ago, pasturing sheep under trees which had been heavily 
sprayed and in other cases cutting the grass and feeding it to 
horses, and no injury resulted in either case. On the other hand, 
there have been cases where animals have fed on grass growing 
beneath street trees that had been sprayed, and such animals 
have been either killed outright or made seriously sick. But 
the case here is very different from any ordinary fruit tree. 
With these street trees the operator stays in the tree for a long 



THE QUESTION OF DANGER TO ANIMALS 207 




Fig. 89. — Gravenstein apples sprayed for scab. Compare with Figure 90. 
Fig. 90. — Gravenstein apples not sprayed. Compare with Figure 89. The matter of 
sprajdng was the only difference in the treatment of these apples. One lot is almost worthless 
and the other nearly all No. 1 apples. 

time and uses a very heavy stream so that there is a tremendous 
drip of poison onto the grass beneath. The farmer need have no 
hesitation in using the grass in any orchard which has been 



208 THE SPRAYING CAMPAIGN 

sprayed in the ordinary way. In this connection it ought to be 
said that too great care can not be exercised to prevent animals 
from getting at the poison. This does not often happen and yet 
it occurs often enough to make extreme caution desirable. In 
particular, the empty kegs ought to be destroyed after the 
poison has been used. Cases are known where such kegs have 
been left about the orchard and have caught rain water and 
animals drinking this water have been killed. All poisons should 
be kept under lock and key and should be taken out only as they 
are wanted for use. It is a very easy thing to become careless 
about this where men are using such materials constantly. 

The question of the effect of sprayed fruit on human beings 
was also investigated by the ]\Iichigan Experiment Station. 
Grapes sprayed with Bordeaux mixture were chosen and it was 
found that even though all the spray materials used were to 
remain on the fruit a person might eat 300 to 500 pounds at 
One meal without getting enough copper sulfate to be dangerous. 
In testing Iho matter of arsenic, apples sprayed with Paris 
green were examined, and it was shown that a person might 
eat eight or ten barrels at one time without being in danger from 
the arsenic. These figures seem fairly reassuring, even for a 
person with a robust appetite, and we may therefore conclude 
that it is safe enough to eat sprayed fruits. Nevertheless, it is 
poor practice to have anything on the fruit whicli can be seen at 
the time it is marketed as it injures its appearance and most 
people do not care to experiment on the effects of spray materials 
on the human system. If it becomes necessary, therefore, to 
spray late in the season use a material that does not show. 

The spraying program varies somewhat in different seasons 
and in different localities; yet it is possible to map out a 
fairly constant program for each of the different fruits, and 
it may be of interest and value to suggest such a general scheme 
here. 

For apples and pears the usual sprayings would be as follows : 

First sprajdng in the autumn after the leaves have fallen, 
using one of the miscible oils — about 1 gallon of oil to 12 gallons 



THE SPRAYING PROGRAM 209 

of water — or using lime-sulfur at the winter strength, say 1 to 
9 or 10. This spraying is principally for the San Jose scale and 
may be omitted altogether where the owner is lucky enough not 
to have that pest. 

Second spraying in the spring before the buds swell, using 
lime-sulfur at winter strength. This is for the scale, principally, 
but is also of value for certain fungous troubles. It is generally 
advisable to apply this spraying, though there may be exceptions. 
In seasons and localities where the aphis is troublesome it is 
well to defer this spring spraying until the eggs of this pest have 
hatched, so that the young aphids may be killed. At this time 
the buds will be well broken open and may even show the tips 
of the individual leaves, but experience has shown that no 
damage will be done. 

Third spraying, within a week after the petals fall from the 
blossoms, using arsenate of lead paste, 3 pounds to 50 gallons of 
water, or the powdered form, one and one-half pounds, with about 
a gallon of commercial lime-sulfur added for fungous diseases. 
This is primarily for the codling moth, but it is also very helpful 
with the curculio and is the most important single spraying in the 
calendar. It ought to be stated here that some people have had 
trouble at times with the combination suggested above and some 
authorities have even gone so far as to recommend not using the 
combination but applying each one separately. This, however, is 
too much trouble and if this combination will not work we must 
get one that will. The writer has never had any trouble with the 
combination, though he has used it for a number of years. 

Fourth spraying, three or four weeks after the third, same 
materials used. This is especially important for the codling moth, 
but is also useful in checking fungous troubles like the scab, the 
sooty blotch and other diseases. 

These four sprayings will usually go far towards protecting 
the orchard from attacks, and, as suggested, the first may some- 
times be omitted, though if the orchardist lives in a San Jose 
scale district he should always do more or less autumn spraying 
in -case the spring work rushes more than anticipated. On the 



210 > THE SPRAYING CAMPAIGN 

other hand, in some sections it frequently becomes necessary to 
spray several times in addition to those outlined. Where there 
are several broods of the codling moth it may be necessary to 
spray four or five times for that insect alone. Of if the scab is 
especially troublesome or the curculio is particularly bad it may 
be necessary to spray before the blossoms open. 

For peaches and plums it is not usually necessary to spray 
in the autumn, but the program would be as follows : 

First spraying, lime-sulfur of winter strength before the 
buds swell, for San Jose scale, leaf curl and brown rot. Be sure 
that this is applied before the buds even begin to swell as other- 
wise the leaf curl will not be controlled. Some experimenters 
have even applied this dormant spraying in the autumn with 
good results. 

Second spraying, with self-boiled lime-sulfur when the fruit 
is the size of the end of one's thumb, principally for the brown 
rot. In sections where this brown rot or monilia is particularly 
bad it is recommended to make three sprayings for it with the 
self-boiled lime-sulfur, the first about a month after the petals 
have fallen, the last about a month before the fruit is ripe, and 
the second about half way between these two. 

Cost of Spraying. — It remains to say a word about the cost 
of spraying. This is an item which varies so much that it might 
show better judgment to omit the discussion of it altogether. 
But it is hoped that the following figures, like others that have 
been given, may be at least suggestive. 

A block of 53 bearing Baldwin trees, probably thirty years 
old, was sprayed for San Jose scale, using an outfit consisting 
of a team and three men at a combined cost of 871/2 cents per 
hour. 

Time, TVs hrs. @ 871/2 cents (cost of labor) $6.56 

Materials 431 gal. spray (Oil 1 to 12 = 32i/o gal., @ 35 cents) 11.38 

Total cost $17.94 

Labor cost per tree 121/3 cents 

Material cost per tree 2I1/2 cents 

Total cost per tree 34 cents 



QUESTIONS 211 

It should be said in explanation of these figures that the work 
was done with great thoroughness, as it was especially desired 
not to let any of the scales escape. 

The same block of fifty-three trees was sprayed for codling 
moth at the following cost: 

Time, 61/2 hours (3 men and team) @ 871/2 cents (cost of labor) $5.69 

Materials 250 gal. spray (3 lbs. arsenate of lead to 50 gal.)=: 15 lbs. 

arsenate of lead, @ S cents 1.20 



Total cost $6.89 

Labor cost per tree 10% cents 

Material cost per tree 2% cents 

Total cost per tree 13 cents 

Total cost per barrel of apples, about 4 cents 

A block of 1,487 four-year-old apple trees was sprayed "for 
San Jose scale at the following cost: 

Time, 41 hours (3 men and team) @ 871/0 cents (cost of labor) .. $35.88 
Materials 720 gal. spray (Oil 1 to 12 = 551/2 gal., @ 35 cents) 19.43 

Total cost $55.31 

Labor cost per tree 2.41 cents 

Material cost per tree . 1,30 cents 

Total cost per tree 3.71 cents 

QUESTIONS 

1. Whsit can be done to make spraying convenient and comfortable? 

2. Discuss the importance of knowing why we spray. 

3. Wliy is it important to spray in time? 

4. Why is thoroughness especially important in spraying? 

5. In what sense may spraying be considered as an insurance ? 

6. Under what circumstances is there likely to be danger to animals from 

spraying? 

7. Outline the seasons spraying for apples and pears. 

8. How should plums and peaches be sprayed? 

9. Discuss the cost of spraying. 



CHAPTER XVI 

RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 

In all the older orchard-growing sections of the country 
there are many old orchards which have been neglected for 
years and are practically worthless as they stand, sometimes 
worse than useless, since they harbor every imaginable pest, and 
yet which may be brought back into vigor and made to grow 
fine crops of fruit if rightly handled. Orchards have been 
changed from absolute worthlessness into thrifty growth and 
remunerative crops in from two to three years. So easily and 
quickly can this change be made that an old orchard, which is 
not in too bad condition, offers better and quicker returns than 
the setting of a new orchard. It seems worth while, therefore, to 
devote a chapter to this subject, since in many respects it is 
quite different from ordinary orcharding. 

Is Cutting Down Better than Renovation? — There are cases 
so bad that th^ best tiling to do is to cut down the trees and put 
them on the wood-pile. It may be remarked in passing that they 
make fine wood for an open fire-place. Anyone Avho has not 
used well-seasoned apple wood in his fire-place has something to 
look forward to. The first question to decide, therefore, is 
whether the orchard is sufficiently promising to warrant the 
necessary outlay to bring it back into good condition again or 
whether it should be used for fire-wood. Of course it is im- 
possible to make rigid generalizations on the subject, for so much 
depends on the owner and the farm. 

Age and Vigor. — ^.There are three or four considerations 
which seem to be of special importance and which would apply 
to almost any case. The first of these is the age and vigor of the 
trees (Fig. 99). The younger they are the better, because the 
owner has just so many more crops to look forward to. Trees 
up to fifty years are certainly worth considering if they are 
thrifty. Trees of seventy-five or one hundred years are some- 
times seen that should be considered by no means hopeless. 
212 



THE STAND OF TREES 



213 



Vigor is far more important than age. The vigor should be in 
the roots and trunk. Indeed, if the roots are poor the outlook 
is rather hopeless. But with a good root system and with a 
sound trunk and main branches it makes little difference how 
much dead wood there may be among the smaller branches. We 
can judge of the root system by the amount of growth being 
thro^^TL out by the top. If the original branches are killed 
by San Jose scale but the roots remain sound, the tree wiU at 




Fig. 91. — A good type of tree for renovating. If the dead wood is cut out and the sucker 
removed from about the trunk it will very soon develop into an excellent tree. 



once throw out a large number of water-sprouts to take care 
of the food being sent up by the roots. Water-sprouts are, there- 
fore, always a hopeful sign in an old, neglected tree. They 
indicate vigor and are useful in forming the future top, as will 
be explained later (Figs. 91, 94, 100 and 102). 

The Stand of Trees. — Having decided favorably as to the 
age and vigor of the trees, the next question of importance to 
the owner is the stand of trees in the orchard. Where there are 
many gaps in the orchard its value is very much reduced. Of 



214 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 



course it is possible to set out young trees where tlie old ones 
have died out, but this is seldom entirely satisfactory. In the 
first place, the young trees so set are not apt to do well and 
often refuse to grow at all. In the second place, even though 
they do grow, it is a long time before they come into bearing. 
With a poor stand of trees the profits are bound to be less, the 
reduction depending on how poor the stand is, for many 



FiQ. 93. 




Fig. 92. — Rather a difficult tree to renovate and one which will require several years 
to work over. It 13 headed so high and there are so few small branches low down that the 
operation will have to proceed slowly. 

Fig. 93. — A difficult type of tree to renovate, but one which has little value as it stands. 
It is so high that it cannot be sprayed properly and all other operations are costly. But it 
can be renovated, as will be seen by referring to Figure 96, which shows the same tree three 
years later. ; 

operations in the orchard cost just as much for a poor stand as 
for a good one. Plowing, cultivating and cover crops, for ex- 
ample, are "per acre" items and not ''per tree." Even such 
operations as spraying cost considerably more per tree if the 
trees are scattered. It is, therefore, far more likely to be 
worth while to undertake renovation with a good stand of trees 
than with a poor one. 



PESTS IN THE OLD ORCHARD 



215 



The Question of Varieties. — The third point on which the 
fate of the orchard hinges is the question of what varieties it 
contains. Our old family orchard with one tree each of forty 
different varieties is far less likely to prove profitable than a 
good block of Baldwins. And, on the other hand, an orchard 
of Ben Davis, or some such variety where the consumer will need 
to "take a glass of water" with his apple in order to get it 
down, would certainly appeal to any practical orchardist less, 
even though it were all of one variety, than an orchard made up 




Fig. 94. — A poor type of orchard for renovating. The trees are so tall and there are 
so few small branches low down that it will take several years before it can be brought 
into anything like a profitable condition. 



of several varieties but all of them good. So the variety ques- 
tion is important. Of course, even large trees can be grafted 
over, but that is a long and rather expensive operation, for 
''grafting" is costly in other places than New York City. 

Pests in the Old Orchard. — ^A last question which is worthy 
of some consideration, though it is not nearly so important sos 
those already mentioned, is the matter of what pests are in the 
orchard. San Jose scale, for example, complicates the situation 
and adds very decidedly to the cost of bringing the trees back to 
health. So do cankers. The orchardist would seldom, perhaps 



216 RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 

never, turn down the proposition merely on account of the 
pests in the orchard, yet coupled with other difficulties they 
may turn the balance against the orchard. 

RENOVATION OPERATIONS 

Having decided that the orchard is worth undertaking, 
the renovating will usually fall under the following six heads : 

1. Pruning. 

2. Grafting. 

3. Fertilizing. 

4. Plowing and cultivating. 

5. Cover crops. 

6. Spraying. 

Some of these are more important than others and the second 
item, grafting, can usually be omitted from the list altogether 
and yet it is best to be prepared for the whole six. Let us con- 
sider each one as briefly as we may and still get a clear idea of it. 

I. Pruning. — This is usually the first thing done and requires 
more study and a greater variation than any of the others. 
Each tree is going to be a problem by itself. Some will require 
severe treatment and others only normal pruning. The type of 
treatment depends on how badly the top has been killed, on 
whether the tree is so high as to make a lowering of the top de- 
sirable, and on how many water-sprouts there are in it. De- 
pending on these three questions a tree may be pruned normally, 
or it may be pruned severely, or it may be ' ' de-homed ' ' ; that is, 
the top cut back very severely. Serious mistakes are often made 
in choosing the type of treatment. • If a tree needs to be de- 
horned the pruner wastes time and money if he gives it merely 
a light pruning; and, on the other hand, trees are sometimes 
killed outright by being de-homed when they should have been 
given merely a severe pruning. 

Suppose that the type of top is satisfactory, that is that the 
tree is not over-tall and there is not much dead wood in it, 
then it may want only a normal pruning. 

If the top is very high so that it ought to be lowered and 
yet there are very few water-sprouts lower down, then the top 



PRUNING 217 

ought to receive a severe pruning to start more water-sprouts 
in order that it may be de-horned later. It would be a mistake 
to de-horn at once, because there are not enough water-sprouts 
to take care of the food sent up by the roots. And it would also 
be a mistake to give it only a light pruning. 

If the top is poor and high with plenty of low-growing 
w^ater-sprouts then the thing to do is to de-horn at once and 
start a new top. 

A common mistake among those who undertake this sort of 
w^ork is to de-horn trees which are really too good for such 
drastic treatment. If a tree has a reasonably good top it is 
much better to do the work gradually, taking several years, 
perhaps, to accomplish the desired result. The owner thus 
secures some returns from his orchard each year, and still the 
trees are improving all the time. 

Having decided on which of these three types of treatment 
is to be meted out to our tree we begin the pruning. A safe 
rule to follow is to go over the entire top and take out all dead 
wood (Fig. 99). Frequently, far too frequently, this is all 
that the tree will stand, and in any case one can judge better 
what more ought to be done after the dead wood has been taken 
out. Next should follow diseased branches. Branches affected 
with blight should come out altogether. Those having such 
diseases as European canker may be kept for a few years if 
they seem to be needed and either taken out altogether, later 
•on, or the diseased areas treated, if the branches are too im- 
portant to be sacrificed. 

In most cases where these old trees are not de-homed it is 
veiy important to low^er the top more or less. This can be done 
gradually, year by year, taking out relatively small branches 
from the top of the tree, and in a surprisingly short time the tree 
will be down where it can be sprayed and picked with comfort 
and dispatch and yet there will have been little loss in the crop. 
The King tree shown in Figure 93 is a good example of this. 
Before the work of renovation began it stood forty feet high 
with the bearing wood at the ends of the branches and most 
of the fruit borne so high that the cost of spraying and picking 



218 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 



the fruit was simply prohibitive. Now it is down, as shown in 
Figure 96, where the work on it can be done with comfort. 
It had been neglected too long to form a model tree, yet no 




Fig. 95. — An old orchard before the work of renovating began; full of dead wood and the 

foliage small and sickly. 

FiQ. 96. — The same orchard as shown in Fig. 95 after three years' treatment. Many of the 
trees are almost models in form and ioliage, and all are greatly improved. 

one would ever recognize it as the same tree shown in Figure 93. 

In this renovation work the operator has to be very careful 

about the wounds which are made in pruning. Many of them are 



PRUNING 219 

large in size and the trees, of course, are less vig'orous than 
younger ones, so that everything possible has to be done to 
facilitate the healing process. In particular, no stubs should 
be left and the painting or tarring of the wounds should be 
very carefully attended to. Even with the best of care these 
large wounds are going to be a menace to the tree. The pruner 
is fortunate also if he does not find a lot of old stubs on the 
trees, left by former pruners, which have already started to 
decay and have gone too far ever to be entirely recovered. It 
is a problem to know just what to do with them. If the decay 
has extended into the main branch it can be stopped entirely 
only by chiselling out all of the decayed wood and filling in 
the hole, but this is usually too costly a process to be under- 
taken on a commercial scale in an orchard. About all that 
one can do is to resaw the stub, dig out as much of the decayed 
wood as can be done conveniently and quickly and then fill in 
the cavity with cement. This is only a make-shift, and delays 
but does not stop the decay. It merely keeps out the water and 
air, rendering the conditions less favorable for the organisms 
causing the decay. 

In most cases of renovation work it is best, at the start, to 
save all the water-sprouts in the tree. This becomes increasingly 
important as the pruning is more severe. Where trees are de- 
horned every sprout should be carefully preserved, and unless 
the pruning is relatively light (what we have called "normal 
pruning") there will be few of these sprouts that can be spared 
to advantage. The second year a large number of them may be 
removed, but not in the beginning, for the tree will need all 
the leaf-surface possible to take care of the relatively large 
amount of plant food that will be sent up by the roots. It 
will be a revelation to those who have never had experience in 
this work to see the luxuriant growth which these old trees 
will develop even during this first season (Figs. 96, 98 and 102). 

This is about all that need be said in regard to the pruning 
proper. There may be parts of the remaining top that will 
need some thinning, but frequently not, and in any case it is 
a relatively unimportant part of the work. 



220 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 



Scraping. — Another operation which ought usually to accom- 
pany the pruning is scraping off the rough bark. This is re- 
garded by some as of doubtful utility, but it is usually very 
desirable. It helps to get rid of a large number of insects, eggs 
and fungous spores. There can be no question about that. And 
where the orchard is affected with San Jose scale this scraping 
is imperative, since live scales will be found hidden away under 
the old scaly bark and these can never be reached b}^ the spray 



Fig. 97. 



Fig. 98. 




Fig. 97. — Beginning the work of renovating an old apple tree; a high top full of dead wood. 
Compare with Figure 98. 

Fig. 98. — The same tree as shown in Figure 97 after three years' treatment. It is now an 

excellent tree. 

mixtures unless the old bark is removed. More than this, it has 
always seemed from pure theory that the bark will expand better 
and the whole tree respond better to the eft'orts in its behalf if 
this old, mossy, scaly covering that it has carried for so many 
years is removed. 

2. Grafting. — If the trees in the orchard are of satisfactory 
varieties the owner is saved this expense, but it usually happens 
that a few trees are of poor sorts, and sometimes a large number 
have to be worked over. This matter of grafting is really a 



GRAFTING 



221 



subject in itself and can be treated only very briefly here. One 
of the chief points to be secured in the remodelled tree is a low 
top, and it is also one of the most difficult points. There are 
two ways of doing it : Either the new grafts or buds must be 
put on water-sprouts which come out low on the trunk or main 
branches, or else we must use what is known as the crown or 
bark graft or the Coburn. The former method is much to be 
preferred, and where water-sprouts are already available or can 



Fig. 99, 



Fig. 100. 




Fig. 99. — An old apple tree before beginning renovation. Two-thirds of the top is dead 

and the rest sickly. 

Fig. 100. — The same tree as Figure 99, de-horned after one year's treatment. 

be developed, there need be no difficulty in changing over the 
top. It is simply a question of budding, if sprouts are small, 
or of cleft grafting, if the sprouts are large. For budding we 
should have a branch not over half an inch in diameter, and the 
ordinary shield-bud method is used. 

The more buds we put in the more quickly the new top can 
be grown, and it is such a simple operation that the extra cost 
amounts to very little. In such a tree as is shown in Figure 
100, fifty buds might be used and the tree changed to the de- 



222 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 



sired variety with very little loss of time. If the same tree were 
to be worked over by cleft grafting it would simply be necessary 
to insert cions in all of the main shoots shown on this tree, per- 
haps ten in number. 

When water-sprouts, or other relatively small branches, can 
not be had then we may resort to crown or bark grafting or to 
Coburn grafting in order to lower the top. In the first of these 
methods the branch to be grafted is sawed off at the desired 
height, which may be well down toward the trunk, and the cions. 



Fig. 101. 



Fig. 102. 




Pig. 101. — The same tree as Fig. 100 after one season's growth. Notice foliage vigor. 
Fig. 102. — The same tree as Fig. 99 after three years' treatment. 

cut to a thin wedge, are pushed down between the bark and the 
wood. There is no splitting of the branch, as in cleft grafting, 
and consequently very much larger branches may be worked over. 
A six-inch, or even an eight-inch branch, may be used. And the 
cions, being pushed right into the cambium layer of the stub, are 
almost sure to grow. The objection to the method is that it takes 
several years for the cions and stock to unite firmly, considerably 
longer than with cleft grafting, and during this time the cions 
frequently blow out if the orchard is in a windy location. In 
the Coburn method the incisions are made with a sharp saw 
instead of by splitting the stub as in cleft grafting, and this 
lessens very greatly the danger of decay starting in the stub. 



FERTILIZERS 



223 



The cions are cut to a long wedge and are driven down into the 
incision made by the saw, being careful, as in cleft grafting, that 
the cambium layers meet. It is a much easier method for the 
novice than the other method. 

3. Fertilizers. — On the matter of fertilizers for the renovated 
orchard the writer has rather decided opinions, based on his 
work in several orchards and on observations in several others. 

No Nitrogen. — In the first place, there ought to be no 
nitrogen of any kind applied the first year. This comes as near 
to being a rule without exceptions as we are likely to run across. 
Just think for a moment of 
what has been done to the 
orchard. If all that has 
been outlined (with the ad- 
dition of cultivation and 
spraying) has been carried 
out thoroughly it will be the 
most surprised lot of trees in 
the state, without the addi- 
tion of an ounce of nitrogen. 
We have taken away from 
one-fourth to nine-tenths of 
the top, which alone would 
induce a vigorous growth; 
it has been freed from insect 
and fungous attacks and the 
soil has been stirred up so 
as to supply it with all the 
water it can use, something 
it probably has not had for 
years. Incidentally this soil treatment seems to give it about all 
the plant food that it can use and it puts forth a rank, dark 
green growth that would do credit to a green bay instead of a 
green apple tree. A glance at Figure 102 will show the type of 
growth to be expected. 

Now suppose that more nitrogen has been added, particularly 
slowly available nitrogen, like barn manure or tankage. The 




Fig. 103. — Trunk of a tree damaged by too 
much nitrogen. The cambium layer has been 
killed and the bark is separating (rom the wood. 



224 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 



tree is bound to make a still more rank growth, and it is going 
to be practically impossible to check it in the autumn in time 
for it to ripen its wood before winter comes on. The result 
is almost certain to be more or less damage to the cambium 
layer and consequent killing of the adjoining bark. If the 
damage is ''less" we are likely to find injury around the trunk 
of the tree, as is shown in Figure 103. In this case the bark was 
killed only part way around and the tree survived, but it is like a 

down to work is coiicorncd. 



man with one lung so far as gettin 




Fig. 104. — An orchard damaged by too much nitrogen. The tree.s have grown late in the 
autumn and have not been able to withstand the cold. 

When the daxaage is more severe the tree may be killed outright 
or so severely damaged that it is practically out of the race. 

Figure 104 shows a case of this kind. It was in an orchard 
in the Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia. The trees had been 
rather neglected for several years, being kept in sod and no 
fertilizer used. Then the owner had a ''change of heart" and 
decided to do better by his trees, so he plowed the orchard and 
applied a heavy dressing of barnyard manure. The soil was 
not very fertile, and the past neglect had made it less so, with the 
result that the trees had made long, straggling roots in search 
of moisture and plant food, as it is well known that trees will 



CULTIVATION 225 

do in a poor soil like this. Then comes this entire change of 
conditions. The soil is plowed up and supplied with an abun- 
dance of both moisture and food, particularly nitrogen. The 
large, spreading root system at once develops an abundance 
of feeding roots throughout its entire length, as it is also well 
known that trees will do when conditions are favorable. The 
result is that the trees are worse off than trees accustomed to 
good care from the start. They ''over-eat," over-grow and are 
not able to withstand the cold of winter. Therefore, if you are 
tempted to use nitrogen in a renovated orchard resist the tempta- 
tion, under most conditions. At least give the orchard one 
season 's treatment to see how the trees respond. 

Damage from this source is usually first shown by the 
trees having a sickly appearance as they leaf out in the spring. An 
examination of the bark about the base of the trunk will fre- 
quently show that it is loose and separates readily from the wood 
over considerable areas. In severe cases practically the entire 
cambium laj^er is killed and the bark may be pulled off in long 
strips. When the cambium layer is killed all around the trunk 
there is nothing to do but cut the tree do^^ni. But where the 
damage is less severe we may cut away the injured bark and 
paint over the wound and the tree will probably recover. 

On the potasli and pJiosphoric acid side, the case is quite 
different. There is certainly no danger of damaging the trees 
and probably every reason to expect that you will benefit them. 
Consequently, the orchardist should use from 400 to 600 pounds 
of basic slag and from 200 to 300 pounds of high-grade sulfate 
of potash per acre. Doubtless these amounts could be varied 
still more and yet give good results, but the amounts suggested 
have been used on different orchards with entire success. 

4. Cultivation. — It is assumed that the orchard is not going 
to be kept in sod. Most of these old orchards of the type under 
consideration have long been in sod and occasionally it may be 
possible to renovate them by sod culture, but usually not. If 
they are to be cultivated the first problem is to get them plowed, 
and sometimes it is a very difficult problem. A steady team is 
needed, a very strong plow, and a man who has a good grip on 
his temper. With these essentials and with plenty of time and 
15 



226 



RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 



perseverance almost any orchard may be plowed. It is sometimes 
recommended to use a disc harrow first in case the orchard has 
long been in sod and the roots are close to the surface, but this 
is entirely unnecessary. Some large roots will have to be cut, 
a great many in fact, and they will keep working out of the 
ground all through the first season, but the tops have also been 
severely pruned and some loss of roots will do no harm. It is a 
good plan to do this first plowing away from the trees to facilitate 
getting out the sod from about their trunks. This will require 




Fig. 105. — An old, neglected uiciiurd »\licii ieiiu\aiion was begun. The foliage is thin 
and poor and the trees generally unthrifty. 

some work with the mattock or grub-hoe after the plowing is 
done, but it is worth while in order to make a thorough job. 

After the plowing is done the land should be put in the best 
condition possible. Usually a disc harrow is a good implement 
to use after the plow and it ought to be run the same way the 
land was plowed to avoid turning up the sod. The disc harrow 
may be followed by anything else in the harrow line that is 
available. The orchard should be cultivated up to about July 
10 and then sown to some cover crop. 

5. Cover Crops. — There are no important special directions 
for cover crops in a renovated orchard unless it be to use buck- 



SPRAYING 



227 



wheat the first year on account of its rotting the sod and leaving 
the soil in such good physical condition. If the soil is reasonably 
good to start with there is usually little difficulty in getting a 
good growth of cover crop this first year, because the sod 
furnishes plenty of humus and the fertilizers applied, with the 
subsequent cultivation, leave the land in fine condition. 

6. Spraying. — Here again there is no marked difference in 
the program for a renovated orchard. If the trees are affected 
with San Jose scale, which is one of the most common causes of 





Fig. 106. — The same orchard as shown in Figure 105, after five years' treatment. There 
were fifty-three trees in the orchard and it yielded as follows: 1908, 43 bbls. ; 1909, 45 bbls.; 
1910, 205 bbls.; 1911, 50 bbls.; 1912, 175 bbls. 

the decline of these old orchards, two very thorough sprayings 
will be necessary, one with oil in the autumn just after the 
leaves are off ; and the other in the spring, with lime-sulfur, just 
before the buds swell. These two sprayings, with two for 
codling moth, are generally all that are necessary. A thing 
which will interest and please the man who does the spraying 
is to see how much easier the spraying becomes year by year 
as the trees are gradually reduced in height by the successive 
prunings. It is the tops of these tall trees that take the time 
and the materials. 



228 RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 

Renovation Practice. — As already suggested these theories 
of renovation have been tried out on many different orchards. 
The history of one of these orchards may be worth stating briefly 
to show what can be accomplished in such old, worn-out orchards 
as we are considering. 

The block consisted of fifty-three trees on about an acre and a 
quarter of land (Fig. 105). The trees were in such bad condi- 
tion that the advisability of cutting them down and planting 
a ''real" orchard was considered seriously, but it was finally 
decided to see what could be done to bring them back into useful- 
ness again. The methods just outlined were followed. During 
the first summer the orchard appeared as shown in Figure 105. 
This first year was the bearing year and the block produced 
forty-five barrels of apples, "the first really good crop it had 
ever borne," one of the neighbors said. As the trees were 
mostly Baldwins the following year was the ''off year" and the 
orchard i)roduced only forty-three barrels. The third year it 
bore nearly two hundred harrels, the fourth year about fifty, 
and the fifth j^ear one hundred and seventy-five barrels. This 
last year the apples were thinned, which reduced somewhat the 
total crop but greatly improved the general quality. In fact, 
there were very few No. 2 apples in the orchard. The trees now 
look, after five years' treatment, as shown in Figure 106. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Are renovated orchards likely to be profitable? 

2. What points should one consider in deciding whether to renovate an 

orchard or not? 

3. Give some idea of the importance of varieties in such an orchard. 

4. How would you prune an orchard that is to be renovated? 

5. Why is scraping recommended? 

6. Discuss the fertilizing of a renovated orchard. 

7. What tillage should be practised in such an orchard? 

8. Can you describe any methods in the renovation of old orchards which 

you have seen? 



CHAPTER XVII 
PICKING AND HANDLING FRUIT 

This is where the real fun of fniit-growing comes in. The 
other work is, much of it, pleasant and most of it interesting, 
but for downright pleasure go out and gather a basket of 
Carman peaches or pick a basket of Mcintosh apples. 

Thinning the Fruit. — While it does not strictly belong here, 
being half way between pruning and harvesting, this is perhaps 




Fig. 107. — A pair of thinning shears. The long pointed blades enable one to get at the 
stems in a cluster of fruit. 

the best place to discuss the thinning of fruit. It is another 
western custom that is bound to become more general. The 
sooner our eastern growers can be brought to realize its im- 
portance the sooner they will see a marked improvement in 
the grade of fruit produced. No one thing will so change the 
size and appearance of a crop of apples as the simple operation 
of removing about half of them from the trees (Fig. 109). 
Thinning is profitable for many different reasons, but the fol- 
lowing are some of the most important. 

1. It maintains the vigor of the tree. The development of 
the fruit is the most serious drain that the tree has to undergo 

229 



230 



PICKING AND HANDLING FRUIT 



and the production of the seed in the fruit is much more ex- 
hausting than any other part of the fruit. So that, while a 
thinned tree may produce nearly as many bushels of fruit as 
one that is not thinned, the number of fruits is so much less on 
the thinned tree that it is left in far better condition. 

2. It prevents the breaking of branches due to overloading 
(Fig. 110). This is a very important matter on trees that are 
bearing a full crop. It is not advisable to thin a tree so much 
that no props at all are required to help the tree to carry its 
load, but there is no question that with proper thinning the 




Fig. 108. — Boys thinning Japanese pluma. 

number of props may be greatly reduced and still leave the tree 
reasonably free from danger of breaking. 

3. It enables us to get rid of fruit infested by insects and 
fungous diseases. This is especially true of the codling moth 
and the railroad worm, but applies to a number of other pests. 
This not only relieves the tree from the drain of maturing these 
fruits, but it helps to hold the pests in check and, perhaps most 
important of all, it relieves the owner of the moral responsibility 
of deciding what to do with these inferior specimens when packing 
time comes. 



THINNING THE FRUIT 



231 



4. The fruit is of better size and color. The improvement in 
these respects will be a revelation to the man who has never 
thinned. The fruit seems to swell right out after the tree is 
thinned and runs a very even grade at picking time (Fig. 109). 

5. The trees will bear more regularly. This seems to be the 
universal testimony of those who have tried it for a sufficiently 
long period. Of course a single year will not demonstrate it, 






■V .' .;•■ ■' 



mt 



- • 









*m^ 



Ik &mc^ami 



Fig. 109. — Branch of an apple tree that was thinned twice. Even now there are some 
apples left that should have been taken off. The most difficult thing in thinning is to get 
the naen to take off enough fruit. 

nor is it probable that old trees which have formed the ''habit" 
of biennial bearing can ever be brought entirely to annual 
bearing. But there seems to be little doubt of its efficacy on j^oung 
trees, though it is probable that with fruits like the apple and 
pear, which bear on spurs, it will be necessary to remove all the 
fruit from some spurs in order to induce this annual bearing. 

This seems like a goodly array of advantages and ought to be 
sufficient to at least warrant a fruit grower in making a start. 
Once the start is made the practice will probably be kept up. 



232 



PICKING AND HANDLING FRUIT 



The actual operation varies greatly with different fruits, 
with different men and under different conditions. Most au- 
thorities seem to favor the use of a pair of shears for taking off 
the fruits, though others are rather partial to a good pair of 
hands. A point that is very important is to go systematically 
over the tree in thinning. If he does not do this the oper- 
ator never knows when he is through. Begin by removing 
all defective fruits, such as wormy or diseased ones, those 
that are under-sized and those that show limb-bruises or 




Fig. 110. — Boy.s ib'nning apples. It cost 40 cents per tree to thin trees of this size 
twice, aud Liiey averaged about lour barrels of apples at harvest time. That is ten cents 
per barrel for thinning and the owner was offered $1.00 per barrel more than his neighbors. 



other similar defects. Then try to thin down to a reason- 
ably uniform distance apart, for uniform distance gives uni- 
form fruit. This is going to vary, of course, but the usual 
error is not to take off enough. When a man gets through 
with the thinning and looks at the ground he is sure he has 
taken off too many. "When it comes time to pick he almost always 
wishes he had taken off more. Western orchardists are by far 
the best authorities in the matter, and many of them recom- 
mend thinning apples to as much as 8 or 10 inches apart. If this 
seems like too much, begin by taking off all the apples but one 



HARVESTING THE CROP 233 

from each spur. Then gradually increase the distance as con- 
fidence and courage increase. With peaches and plums a good 
rule to begin on is to thin until no two fruits touch each other. 
Of course this really means that the fruit will average a fair dis- 
tance apart and this can be increased as suggested for apples. 
The main thing is to get the practice introduced. A great ad- 
vantage of both these standards of thinning (taking off all but 
one apple per spur, and thinning plums and peaches so that they 
do not touch), is that they are simple rules which anybody can 
follow without any particular thought or slackening of speed. 
Tell a man to thin to eight inches apart and he spends too much 
time figuring whether two particular apples are seven inches or 
eight inches apart. 

The Cost. — What discourages many from thinning is the 
notion that it is an endless job and that the cost is very high. 
Of course it does cost, but one should reflect that it costs little 
more to pick an apple by thimiing in July, than it does to 
pick it by harvesting it in October. The writer kept care- 
ful account of the cost of thinning an orchard of fifty-three 
bearing Baldwin trees one season. They were gone over twice, 
once the fore part of eTuly and a second time the fore part of 
August, and the total cost w^as about forty cents per tree. It 
was the orchard shown in Figure 106, and the trees would 
average about four barrels per tree, which made the cost of 
thinnino- about ten cents per barrel. As no check trees were 
left without thinning, it is impossible to say how much the fruit 
was increased in value, but it was certainly a beautiful crop 
and an apple buyer offered for it what he claimed was a dollar 
a barrel more than he was paying for most fruit, because of their 
uniformity and size. This would make the profit due to thinning 
one thousand per cent. 

HARVESTING THE CROP 

Coming now to real picking, several questions of importance 
present themselves: First, equipment needed for picking; second, 
when fruit should be picked ; third, how it should be picked. 



234 



PICKING AND HANDLING FRUIT 



Picking equipment. — For most fruits this consists of some 
type of ladder and some kind of receptacle, usually a basket. 

There are all kinds of ladders on the market, but two kinds 
especially commend themselves. In step-ladders the kind shown 
in Figure 111 is preferable. It has only one leg in front, which 
enables the operator to establish it firmly on the ground much 
more quickly than can be done with the four-legged kind, and 
r ^ incidentally it is much more 

firmly established. The spread 
of the ladder proper at the 
bottom also helps to make it 
a very stable ladder. 

Then for old apple trees or 
other large-sized trees the 
best ladder is what is gener- 
ally known as the orchard 
type of ladder, where the two 
side-pieces come together in a 
point. This makes it much 
easier to establish the ladder 
firmly against the tree than 
is the case with the other 
type of ladders in which the 
two side-pieces run parallel 
or nearly so. Both types of 
these ladders are shown in 
Figure 115. 

A very satisfactory pick- 
ing receptacle is a smooth oak 
picking basket such as is shown in Figure 112. For perishable 
fruits it ought to be lined. Another good picking receptacle which 
is strongly recommended by many western fruit growers is the 
galvanized iron pail. Besides being a perfectly rigid affair 
with no tendency to allow the fruit to squeeze down along the 
edges of the receptacle, as it will do in a flexible one, the pail 
possesses the additional advantage that the foreman can tell 
by the sound when a picker throws an apple into it. This last 




Fig. 111. — Picking cherries. Notice the 
type of step-ladder, broad at the bottom and 
with only one leg in front. 



PICKING EQUIPMENT 



235 



point appeals to any man who employs a number of pickers. 
Never buy the rough type of picking basket shown in Figure 113. 
They cost just as much and bruise the fruit far more. Another 
type of picking receptacle which is Yery objectionable is the 
picking bag: (Fig. 114). There are various types of these, from 
a home-made contrivance made from a grain sack and designed 
to sling over the shoulder, to the cross between a pail and a 
bag with iron sides and a cloth bottom, ^¥ith a very careful 



Fig. 112. 



Fig. 113. 




Fig. 112. — A good picking basket. The smooth surface does not bruise the fruit and the 
padding helps still more to reduce this type of damage. 

Fig. 113. — A poor type of picking basket for fruit, yet one often used. The rough sides are 
sure to bruise the fruit. 

picker they may work very well, though even then it is difficult 
to see how fruit can escape being bruised more or less as the 
operator moves about in picking. With the usual help that 
must be employed when there is much picking to do, it is simply 
out of the question to avoid a lot of serious injury. It probably 
will not show itself when the fruit is emptied into the box or 
barrel; frequently it may not show when it is packed, but it 
certainly will in the lon^ run. Such fruit cannot keep as well 
as that which has not been subjected to this treatment. 



236 



PICKING AND HANDLING FRUIT 



A word also ought to be said in regard to the containers 
which are used to carry the fruit from the orchard to the pack- 
ing house. If possible these should not be the packages which 
are to be sent to market. Some very large peach growers make 
a practice of taking the regular basket in which the fruit is to 
be shipped right into the orchard, but in most cases this is not 
done. And where it can be avoided it is certainly better not to 
use them, for the baskets are bound to get soiled and broken 




Fig. 114. — Picking apples into bags. TIksl may be all right with very careful men 
and have the advantage of leaving both hands free, but the fruit is almost sure to be bruised 
with the least carelessness. 

more or less in their trip from the storehouse to the orchard and 
back again. For the smaller fruits, like plums and peaches, the 
picking basket shown in Figure 116 is excellent for transporting 
the fruit from orchard to packing house, and it will last much 
longer if oiled. For apples and pears either a heavy orchard 
box should be used or else barrels. In either case it is much 
better if these receptacles are kept expressly for this purpose. 
Second-hand barrels are entirely satisfactory and the heavy 



WHEN AND HOW TO PICK 237 

orchard box makes an excellent receptacle to store apples in and 
will last a long time if handled with reasonable care. 

When and How to Pick. — We come now to the second of 
our picking questions. When to pick the fruit varies, of course, 
with circumstances and with fruits. It varies all the way from 
peaches, which are never quite so good as when allowed to get 
thoroughly ripe on the trees, to pears, which practically ought 
never to be allowed to ripen on the tree. The distance the 
fruit has to be shipped is an important factor in determining 
the proper degree of ripeness for most fruits. The farther one 
has to ship the ' ' greener ' ' must the fruit be when picked. That 
is one of the advantages which the local grower has over the 
man who has to ship long distances. Watch the way prices 
jump up when the first "native" or local peaches or strawberries 
come on, and you get an estimate as to how much it improves 
them to ripen on the tree or vine. 

As there is considerable variation in handling the different 
fruits at picking time it may be well to suggest a few points 
as to picking each particular fruit. 

Apples when grown for market are seldom allowed to get 
fully ripe on the tree, though it probably does not reduce their 
quality any to do so if they mature early enough. Gravensteins, 
for example, that have ripened on the tree are certainly fully 
as good as if they had been picked earlier and allowed to ripen 
in storage. Of course the winter varieties are not really ripe 
until long after they are picked, and even the early sorts, though 
they are more nearly ripe, are usually pretty "green" when 
picked. 

The proper degree of maturity is judged in various ways. 
The amount of red color is frequently a fair index. The appear- 
ance of the cheek, whether it is still a dead, even, hard green or 
whether it has begun to ripen up and look edible, is very im- 
portant. The ease with which the stem separates from the tree 
is also an excellent index of maturity. So long as either the 
stem or the spur is likely to break instead of the joint between 
the two, the apple may safely be left on the tree, except where 
one is shipping very long distances. But when this joint 



238 



PICKING AND HANDLING FRUIT 



separates easily, when some of the apples even begin to fall, 
then there is little danger of their being too green. The color 
of the seeds is another point usually given, but it is really seldom 
resorted to. If the seeds are examined they should be a good 
brown color, as a rule, before the apple is fit to pick. There are 
exceptions to this rule, for some varieties are still immature 
when the seeds are brown and others are fairly edible while the 
seeds are still very light colored, but these exceptions are rare. 




Fig. 115. — Picking applt .s from \vtll-lo:i(l ■(! tms. Aijple trees carrying a full crop cannot 
be thinned enougli to carry their truit without danger unless they are propped. 

In the operation of picking the apple, if the thumb is placed 
beside the joint between the stem and the spur, and then the fruit 
is bent towards the thumb with a quick motion, the joint will 
usually break readily. This requires a little practice, but once 
acquired the good picker will harvest very few spurs. The 
apple should always be picked with the stem on, as where the 
stem is pulled out it breaks the flesh and allows disease germs to 
enter. This is a point frequently overlooked by careless pickers 
and ought to be insisted on by the foreman. It is frequently 
a good plan to make more than one picking of a variety. With 



WHEN AND HOW TO PICK 239 

early apples this is especially true, but it will hold with even as 
late varieties as the Gravenstein and the Mcintosh. One gets much 
better fruit in this way, and it is surprising how the smaller 
apples which are left on the tree will fill out in size. Of course 
this is especially important with such varieties as Wealthy and 
Mcintosh, which tend to drop before they are fully ripe, yet it is 
often worth trying even with varieties which hang on well. 

Pears, as already suggested, are picked decidedly green, in 
fact greener than any other fruit. If allowed to become too 
ripe on the tree all sorts of difficulties are likely to develop. 
Some varieties rot at the core, many develop the hard, gritty 
granules, so disagreeable to the consumer, of an otherwise fine 
pear, while still others become mealy. Most of the indications 
discussed under the apple, except red color, apply to the pear, 
but the really important indication is the appearance of the 
cheek of the fruit. When this changes from a dull, unattractive, 
green to a more yellow and inviting appearance the fruit should 
be picked. Of course, greenness can be over-done, even in the 
pear, in which case the fruit will wilt and shrivel instead of 
mellowing, but there is relatively little danger of this. Pears 
should be picked very carefully, more so than almost any other 
fruit. Bruises are peculiarly disastrous with a fruit which must 
remain in storage so long and which has a flesh that is so soft 
and melting. 

Peaches ought to remain on the tree just as long as possible 
and still get to market in good condition. This accepted rule 
practically means that it is impossible for anyone to advise the 
owner as to when to pick. It all depends on how far he is from 
his market, and it will probably require some experimenting on 
the part of the man who is not familiar with the business. The 
all-important indication with the peach, as with the pear, is the 
appearance of the cheek of the fruit. When this looks mature 
and is attractive in color the peach is ready to pick. Do not 
pay much attention to the question of red color. This is largely 
a varietal question and depends also on how dense the top of the 
tree is. Moreover, red frequently develops on a peach weeks 
before it is ripe. We frequently see the advice given to judge 



240 



PICKING AND HANDLING FRUIT 



by feeling of a peach whether it is ready to pick or not. This 
is absolutely unnecessary and very detrimental to the fruit. It 
may be necessary at the start to test a few specimens in this 
way in order to get at the relation between appearance and 
maturity, but that is all. The man who cannot pick peaches 
without pinching and punching them in this way had better 
be put to picking potatoes, which will stand that sort of treat- 
ment. Moreover, it is an unnecessary waste of time. The picker 
who stops to feel of every peach he picks will not pick many. 
Another point worth mentioning is the fact that cling-stones 




Fig. 116. — Peaches picked into oak picking baskets, to be packed out into other baskets 

for market. 



and semi-cling-stone varieties may be allowed to stay on the tree 
much longer than those which are perfectly free. The real 
cling is not much in evidence these days, but the' semi-cling is 
fairly common. Peaches are, of course, always separated from 
the very short stem, and this ought to be done by as straight 
a pull as possible, as this bruises the edge of the cavity less 
than if they are pried loose. 

Cherries. — There is no great art about picking cherries ex- 
cept to be sure to get the stems. In fact, the fruit itself should 
not be touched any more than can be helped. Do the work with 
the stems alone. They should be allowed to get as ripe as possi- 



WHEN AND HOW TO PICK 



241 



ble before being gathered, as they do not improve much after 
picking. And still they are not allowed to get fully ripe except 
for very nearby markets. Taste is the standard by -which to 




FiQ. 117. — Attacking an old-timer. The coat of picking such large trees is much greater than 

from low tree.s. 



judge ripeness that is usually suggested by those who write on 
this subject, and it is probably as good as any, though if it is 
adopted there is danger that some pickers will require to have 
16 



242 PICKING AND HANDLING FRUIT 

their judgment refreshed rather often. Cherries ought always 
to be picked into baskets or some other rigid receptacle and this 
should be rather small, as too large a body of fruit is likely to 
lead to injury. 

Plums are generally picked before they are ripe ; for distant 
markets, long before. Yet like all stone fruits, they will respond 
in improved quality if they can be allowed to stay on the trees 
till fully ripe. The writer has had some experience with Bur- 
bank and Red June plums which was interesting to him and may 
be helpful to others. Both of these are Japanese varieties, a 




S'lQ. 118. — A load of apples on the way to market. This is a good type of wagon for hauling 
barrels. It is low, making it easy to load, and it will carry twenty-five barrels easily. 

class usually singled out by authorities to recommend picking 
green. The trees under discussion were thinned carefully and 
the fruit was then allowed to hang until it was fully ripe. We 
started picking once or twice and quit because there was not 
enough fruit that was sufficiently ripe. We made repeated 
pickings, taking only the really ripe plums, and, though these 
two varieties are not usually rated as of high quality, these 
particular specimens were certainly delicious. They were put 
up in strawberry quart baskets and sold at 9 to 10 cents whole- 
sale. But it was the quality that accomplished the results, and 
it was the ripeness that gave the quality. Plums ought always 



MANAGEMENT OF PICKERS 



243 



to be picked with the stems on if possible. With some of the 
American varieties it is sometimes difficult to do this, as they 
separate from the stem very readily. 

Management of Pickers. — It remains to say just a few 
words in regard to orchard methods which apply pretty gener- 
ally to all the different fruits. The first of these, and by all 
means the most important, is the question of managing the 
pickers. Various methods are in vogue, but, with few excep- 
tions, the only proper way is to pay by the day and not by the 
piece. With small fruits this may not be so generally true, but 
with the orchard fruits, which we are considering, where the 
orchardist wants good work he can get it only by absolutely 
owning the men's time. It 



^^^mB^k,-^ 



.X w^t^ f'-*: 



■<Sf, 






Fig. 119.— Distributing barrels in the apple 
orchard. 



is desirable to get as good 
help as possible. And if the 
owner can have enough 
regular men, or men who 
have worked on the place 
enough to have an interest 
in things, so that he can put 
one or two of them with the 
raw recruits, it is a great 
advantage. It is also well not 
to have too many men in any 
one gang. 

Some method must also be adopted to relieve the picker of the 
necessity of holding his basket, so that he may have both hands 
free. A very common and handy device is an iron hook fastened 
to the handle of the basket which may be hooked over a limb 
of the tree or a rung of the ladder. Sometimes the basket is hung 
to the belt or over the shoulder. 

The sooner the fruit can be gotten under cover after being 
picked the better. Do not allow it to stand in the hot sun. Of 
course this is more important with the perishable classes, like 
cherries, but it holds to a greater or less extent with fruit of 
any kind. 

For hauling the fruit from the orchard some type of low 



244 PICKING AND HANDLING FRUIT 

wagon will be found very useful. If it can be such as will 
turn in a very short space so much the better. A low wagon 
becomes ahnost imperative where apples are brought from the 
orchard in barrels (Fig. 118). The amount of energy that is 
wasted in lifting barrels of apples into high wagons or carts 
and then lifting them down again would have built the Panama 
Canal. Good equipment for all the different operations is half 
the battle in handling the fruit economically and well (Fig. 119). 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the principal benefits from thinning fruit. 

2. Describe how it is done. 

3. Give some idea of the expense. 

4. What should be the equipment for picking the different fruits ? 

5. Discuss the stage of maturity for the picking of apples. 

6. Same for peaches and plums. 

7. Same for pears. For cherries. 

8. Give special points and cautions to be observed in the picking of each 

of these fruits. 

9. Discuss the management of picking crews. 

10. Describe the picking of fruits as you have seen it and discuss the 
good or bad features. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
STORING FRUIT 

It is rare that a fruit grower is supplied with abundant and 
efficient storage room. Frequently the only storage available 
on the farm is the cellar of the dwelling house or, worse yet, of 
the barn. While the late varieties of apples may keep sur- 
prisingh^ well in these old cellars, there is no hope of holding 
the earlier and more perishable fruits. 

Advantages of Good Storage. — The principal advantages 
which the orchard man secures by having adequate and efficient 
storage are the following: 

i. Prevents Forced Sales. — It puts him on an equality, or 
nearly so, with the buyer. Frequently the great advantage which 
the buyer has over the fruit grower is that the latter has no 
place to store his fruit and the buyer knows this. He therefore 
offers as little as his conscience will let him, knowing that the 
orchard man, realizing his precarious position, will accept the 
offer rather than run the risk of failing to find another buyer. 
Now suppose that the grower has plenty of room in which to 
store his fruit and that this storage is efficient so that his fruit 
will keep in good condition for a long time. He is in a very 
different situation from the former case. He knows that his 
fruit will be perfectly safe for a number of weeks or montlis and 
he therefore feels quite independent about selling. If the price 
offered is satisfactory^ he will take it, and if not he wdll wait. 
Good storage facilities, therefore, put the transaction just where 
it belongs. Neither buyer nor seller has any advantage over the 
other. If they can agree on a price the fruit changes hands, and 
if they can not it does not, 

2. Good storage prevents gluts of the market by allowing the 
producer to hold back a part of his crop. This is especially true 
of the more perishable fruits. For example, in New England 
there is what is known as "Elberta week," w^hen this variety 

245 



246 STORING FRUIT 

comes on with a rush. It so happens that it usually comes the 
week of Labor Day, when most people do not want to labor. 
The result is that prices usually collapse. But if even the large 
growers were so situated that they could put some of their 
peaches in storage for this week they would not only be saved 
the necessity of selling this part of the crop at a sacrifice, but 
the mere fact that they took some of the fruit off the market 
would help to keep the price up. 

3. Good storage increases consumption by keeping the fruit 
in better condition. This is a self-evident fact but one frequently 
overlooked. If a consumer gets a barrel of apples in poor condi- 
tion, one barrel will perhaps be all that he will buy ; whereas if 
his first barrel comes to him in fine shape he may be induced to 
use two or even three barrels. Few people realize how much 
difference there is in selling capacity between a fruit which is 
merely not decayed and one which has been kept in prime 
condition. 

4. Good storage improves the price by allowing the grower 
to delay his marketing. It almost always happens that the price 
of any fruit is higher at either end of the season than it is in 
the middle of the season. Therefore if a grower can keep the 
fruit which he would ordinarily market in the middle of the 
reason until this rise in price occurs he is going to realize con- 
siderably more for his crop. 

5. Good Storage Avoids Mental Strain. — It seems worth 
while to add another advantage of good storage, and that is the 
influence it exerts on the grower himself. Few people who have 
not had the experience realize what a mental strain it is upon 
a man to market a large crop of fruit. A good share of this 
strain comes from his anxiety lest the fruit shall deteriorate 
before he can sell it. The reassurance which a good storage would 
bring to such a man would increase his comfort and prolong 
his life. 

The Ideal Storage Plant. — "With all these benefits to be 
secured from storage it is worth while next to consider what 
constitutes an ideal fruit storage plant. It ought to have the 
following characteristics : 



THE IDEAL STORAGE PLANT 247 

1. Low Temperature. — A satisfactory storage must be able 
to give relatively low temperatures. Just what these shall be 
depends on the kind and condition of fruit, but they must be 
low. Usually fruit keeps best, or at least longest, when the 
temperature approaches the freezing point. With apples it is 
generally considered that the best temperature is from 30° to 
32° F., but it is quite possible that this idea may be modified 
with further experimentation, but in any case it is going to be a 
low temperature that is desired. The low temperature prolongs 
the keeping of the fruit for two reasons, first because it prevents 
or retards the work of the organisms of decay and second because 
it slows down the life processes of the fruit so that it lives a 
slower life and therefore lasts longer. 

2. Little Variation. — The storage room should have as con- 
stant a temperature as possible. Variations are always objection- 
able and become more so as they 'are rapid and extreme. The 
writer once had experience with a small storage room where the 
insulation was very poor. The first winter he managed it 
he attempted to get around the difficulty by putting a small 
oil stove in the room. As this could not be left burning all night, 
the temperature was run up to perhaps 60° during the day and 
then fell to nearly freezing during the night. This was repeated 
each day of the very cold weather. It is needless to say that the 
fruit kept very poorly that winter, so much so that it was de- 
cided that something would have to be done to improve matters. 
The following year furring strips an inch thick were nailed 
against the walls and then the room was lined with building 
paper, thus giving an inch air space and the additional layer of 
paper over the entire wall surface. The result was that the 
following winter the temperature was very constant and the 
fruit kept surprisingly well. 

3. Getting Fruit hi and Out. — The storage should be 
arranged so that it is convenient to get fruit into it and out 
again. Just what this arrangement will be will vary with 
circumstances, but if it is at all possible to get a wagon into 
the storage it will save tremendously in the cost of getting the 
fruit in and out. An elevator and an outside bulk-head are two 
common methods, but neither is as expeditious as the wagon 



248 STORING FRUIT 

method, and the bulk-head method is not much more efficient in 
conserving the cold temperature of the storage house. 

4. Not too Expensive. — The storage must be reasonable in 
cost. Just what may be considered as a reasonable cost varies. 
The cost of the same house in different localities will vary and 
the price which a grower can afford to pay and still make a 
profit on his investment will vary. If an orchard man is selling 
his apples to a fancy trade at $5 to $10 a barrel he can afford 
to put more money into a storage house than the man who is 
selling on the general market for $1.50 to $2.00 a barrel. In 
estimating the capacity of a room or building it is customary to 
allow ten cubic feet per barrel, and two and a half cubic feet 
per bushel box. These amounts allow for alley ways for getting 
at the different lots in the storage. It is generally considered 
that a refrigerated storage house can be put up for from 
$2.50 to $3.50 per barrel of capacity. If an orchard man is 
expecting to put his fruit in cold storage he can probably 
put up his own building, provided he is a reasonably large 
grower, cheaper than he can hire his fruit stored in a com- 
mercial storage plant. 

The usual price charged for storing apples is 40 to 50 cents 
per barrel for the season. Now if a grower is producing say 
one thousand barrels of apples, and putting them in refrigerated 
storage, he pays $500 for the season. This is the interest at 
five per cent on $10,000, which at the estimates given above 
would put up a building with a capacity of from 2,900 to 4,000 
barrels. Of course it is going to cost the OAvner something to 
run it, but even so he is going to save money and he is going to 
have the advantage of a satisfactory storage right on the place 
(Fig. 120). 

On the other hand there is some advantage in having the 
fruit stored near the point where it is to be consumed or at 
least distributed, and as the commercial plants are usually 
located in the larger centres this advantage should be kept m 
mind. In particular the danger from freezing in transit during 
the winter months is greatly reduced by having the fruit shed 
near the point of consumption. 

5. Proper Moisture, — A storage room should carry a rela- 



THE IDEAL STORAGE PLANT 



249 



tively high percentage of moisture. Just what the best moisture 
content is has not yet been accurately determined. Mr. IMadison 
Cooper, a recognized expert in such matters, suggests for apples 
80 per cent of a saturated atmosphere. One thing is certain, 
it is very easy to get the storage room too dry. While it is 
undoubtedly possible to also get it too moist, this is a far less 
common difficulty. The writer recalls the methods used by 
two growers in the Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia, who were 
noted for their success in keeping apples. One of them had 
a stream of water running through his storage cellar and the 
other made a practice of wetting down his cellar with a hose. 
It is apparently particularly objectionable, from the moisture 
standpoint, to have a cement floor in the building unless some 
provision is made to supply the needed amounts of moisture. 




Fia. 120. — A good type of farm storage house. This building will hold about two thousand 
barrels of apples and has ample room for empty barrels in the loft. 



In one house the requisite moisture supply has been kept up in 
a room which has a cement floor, by having a small channel 
cut in the cement along two sides of the room and keeping a 
small stream of water in this from a faucet which is allowed 
to drip slightly. 

6. Good Size. — The storage ought to be ample. The cost 
per barrel is less on a large plant than on a small one and it 
therefore adds relatively little cost to increase the capacity 
of the house considerably. And where new orchards are coming 
along, more and more room is going to be needed. It is there- 



250 STORING FRUIT 

fore much better to build a good-sized plant to begin with. 
It can never be done as cheaply afterwards. 

7. Operaiion Inexpensive. — The building must be operated 
cheaply. This is imperative. The more simple the method of 
operating the better. A method requiring expensive machinery 
that is likely to get out of repair and which needs the attention 
of expert and high-priced men, while it may be all right for 
the large city plant, is certainly not usually the best for the 
farmer unless he is a large grower. 

The various types of fruit storage may be classified as 
follows : 

1. Refrigerated storage, in which ammonia, carbon dioxide 
or some other gas is used for cooling the room. This is the most 
common type with large establishments and has the advantage 
that it is usually very accurate in operation. It is possible to 
regulate the temperature to a degree, which is often very im- 
portant. The objections to it are that it is expensive and that 
the machinery required to operate it is rather complicated and 
Avhen it gets out of order requires an expert to fix it up again. 
There are three different methods of cooling storage rooms by 
this gas system: (a) The gas, after being liquefied under 
pressure, is conducted in pipes to the storage room which is 
to be cooled, and there allowed to expand and take up the heat 
of the room; (6) the gas is allowed to expand in pipes which 
are immersed in brine and this cooled brine is then conducted to 
the room to be cooled; (c) the air of a certain room (or rooms) 
is cooled down and then is put in circulation by fans and carried 
thus to the storage rooms. 

2. We have refrigerated storage where ice is used for cool- 
ing. This is the type of storage which is often used for fruit, 
and it has proved an exceptionally satisfactory method for this 
purpose. The method is briefly as follows: At the top of the 
building are vats in which are located coils of pipes filled with 
chloride of calcium brine. This brine is 25° Beaume density 
and will not freeze at 3° F. These coils, known technically as 
the primary coils, are connected by pipes with other coils in the 
rooms to be refrigerated, knowo. technically as the secondary 



THE VARIOUS TYPES OF FRUIT STORAGE 251 

coils. To cool the rooms, broken ice and coarse salt are put 
into the vats and the ice in melting takes up the heat from the 
primary coils, thus cooling* the brine in them. This makes the 
chloride brine heavier and it flows, by gravity, down through 
the connecting pipe into the secondary coils. Here it takes up 
the heat of the room and thereby becomes lighter again, and so 
the flow is kept up. The temperature of the refrigerated rooms 
is controlled principally by varying the amount of salt used 
with the ice, but there are valves on the pipes by which the 
flow may be stopped altogether when desired or shut down as 
much as may be wished. The great advantages of the system 
are: The cheapness with which it can be run, requiring no 
high-priced labor whatever; the fact that one or more of the 
rooms may be run without the others, thus reducing the cost 
proportionately; the fact that there is no intricate machinery 
to get out of order, and repairs at their worst are made by a 
plain plumber, and, most important of all, the fact that it works 
well in practice. 

3. There is the frost-proof type of fruit storage. This de- 
pends on the temperature of the outside air for cooling the 
rooms. It is not as efficient as either of the others, but neither 
does it cost as much, either to build or to operate. The old- 
fashioned bam or house cellar is the crudest form of frost- 
proof storage. The building shown in Figure 121 represents the 
highest type. "Where storage is required principally for winter 
varieties of apples and where the autumn temperatures are 
relatively low, the frost-proof house is likely to prove very 
satisfactory. Where the more perishable fruits aj:'e grown it is 
by no means so useful. Such a. building or room is operated 
by opening it up when the outside air is cooler than that of the 
room and closing it again when the outside temperature rises. 
"With a little attention, and leaving it open during the cold 
nights of early autumn, the temperature may be forced do^^^l 
fairly low quite early in the season. 

Construction. — It may be worth while to give next the type 
of construction used in the two buildings here described. 



252 



STORING FRUIT 




CONSTRUCTION 



253 



In the refrigerated 'building, shown in Figure 121, the walls 
are relatively very complicated and are correspondingly efficient. 
Particularly on the outside walls of the refrigerated rooms the 
insulation is very perfect. These walls consist of the following 
materials, beginning on the outside: (1) Brick veneer, (2) air 
space, (3) w^ater-proof building paper, (4) inch boards, (5) 
2 by 10 inch studs, the space filled with shavings, (6) inch 
boards, (7) water-proof paper, (8) inch hair felt, (9) water- 
proof paper, (10) inch hair felt, (11) water-proof paper, (12) 
inch boards. 




Fig. 122. — Type of apple storage house found in the Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia. 

An excellent feature of this building, wdiich ever>^ storage 
building should possess, is an ample storage room in the third 
story for empty packages. 

TJhe frost-proof storage house has been brought to great 
perfection in the famous Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia, where 
this type is used exclusively. Some of these houses are located 
on the farms, but most of them are located along the railway, 
and are either cooperative or are built by large commission 
houses or by large buyers w^ho operate in the section. One of 
the farm type is shown in Figure 120 and one of the other type 
in Figure 122. The walls of these storage houses vary con- 



254 



STORING FRUIT 



siderably, but the following is a common construction. Be- 
ginning on the outside we have: (1) Shingles, (2) water-proof 
paper, (3) inch boards, (4) water-proof paper, (5) inch boards, 
(6) 2 by 4 inch studs, (7) lath and plaster, (8) inch furring 
strips, (9) inch tongue-and-groove sheathing. 

A diagram of this wall is shown in Figure 123. Considering 
that it is not a very complicated wall, it is certainly a very 
efficient one. 

Keeping Qualities of Fruits. — It remains to say a word about 
the factors which influence the keeping quality of fruits. Like 
most of the work in fruit growing, we need more light on many 
points connected with the storage of fruits, yet the following 
seem reasonably well established: 



i STOR/^ SHUTTEH 1 CASI/S/G 1 SAV//^&l.ES ( 


S^^ce 1 C»J-//VS 1 1 lf\JCI-f BO/^FfD \ 


. , S/KSH 




2 /NCf^ BOAFID ^ 


Z INCM ^/?^C£ 




^ 
h 


•f //VCH Sf^CE 


^ 




) Jy^SM 












t.y\-rM A/\IO ^cAsr£-^ ^ 




fjr/f/^ ^3r^/o^ 




/ //Vcw To/vet/e. /\Ayo G^oot'S s^^AT^/f^s- ^\ 


4 _ ,. J/V//V/V3VV — - .» > 




c^//vs 1 







Fig. 123. — Diagram of a cross-section of the walls of the storage house in Figure 122. 

TliG handling of fruit from the time it is on the tree until it 
lands in the storage house has a very important influence on 
the length of time it will keep. Fruit which is picked roughly, 
so as to bruise it in separating it from the twig; fruit which is 
thrown into the picking basket or poured from that into the 
receptacle in which it is to be stored ; or fruit which is roughly 
handled while loading or unloading in hauling the packages 
from the orchard to the storage house, will not keep as well as 
that which is carefully handled. The importance of this cannot 
be over-emphasized, and every detail in the work should be care- 
fully scrutinized to see if there is any possible chance for 
improvement. 

The degree of maturity of the fruit at the time it is picked 
and stored has a very decided influence on the length of time 



KEEPING QUALITIES OF FRUITS 255 

it will keep. It is a common impression that the greener the 
fruit is when picked, the longer it will keep, but this is by no 
means true, A certain degree of immaturity is desirable, but it 
is quite possible to overdo it. There is some difference in this 
respect with the various fruits, but in general it may be said that 
fruits will keep longest if picked when they are fully matured 
and well colored, but before the tissues have begun to break 
down, while the flesh is still firm. 

Delay m getting the fruit into storage after it is picked is 
a third very important factor. It ought to be understood that 
there are certain life processes which are constantly going on 
in the fruit, as in any other part of the plant. These processes 
have to do with the growth, maturing, and finally with the break- 
ing down and decay of the fruit. They go forward more rapidly 
under some conditions than under others. Among other things 
which hasten this ripening process is the removal of the fruit 
from the tree. It ripens faster after it is picked than while it is 
on the tree. Therefore it should be hustled into storage as fast 
as possible when once it has been picked. 

Mr. Gr. Harold Powell has shown that Kings, Suttons and 
Rhode Island Greenings picked September 15 and stored within 
three days, kept in good condition until March, while the same 
varieties picked at the same time and handled in the same way, 
except that they w^ere not stored for two weeks, were badly de- 
cayed by January 1. Their commercial value had been injured 
from 40 to 70 per cent by delay in getting them into the storage 
house. 

High Temperature Before Storage. — One of the chief factors 
in making delay dangerous is the higher temperature to which 
the fruit is subjected in the orchard or the open shed. A high 
temperature shortens the life of the fruit by hastening the 
life processes in it. There is no question about that. Just what 
is the best temperature and just how it ought to be varied in 
ripening up the fruit, are matters still to be determined, but 
there is no question that they ought to be low. The more 
carefully fruit has been handled the higher temperature it 
will stand and still come out in good condition. And conversely 



256 STORING FRUIT 

the rougher the fruit has been handled the lower the temperature 
should be. We ought not, however, to expect that fruit is 
going to be any better when taken from cold storage than when 
put in. Many people have apparently overlooked this and ex- 
pect the storage man to make a number one apple out of a 
number two while it is in his charge. 

Fungous and physiological diseases exercise a very im- 
portant influence on the keeping of fruit. Among the former 
the scab or black spot of apples and pears, and the monilia, or 
brown rot, of the stone fruits, deserve particular mention. When 
fruit has the skin broken in any way, as by pulling an apple 
from the tree without the stem, or by having the stem of another 
apple puncture it while in the basket, several of the common 
molds are likely to gain entrance and cause the fruit to decay 
rapidly. Frequently they cause almost the total loss of fruit 
that is stored. Spraying, careful handling, and low temperature 
are the methods of reducing the loss, but even these cannot reduce 
it to zero. Among physiological diseases the scald, and the 
dry rot or Baldwin spot of apples, are especially important. 
Neither one is entirely understood, but either one will cause a 
tremendous amount of loss under certain conditions. 

The conditions under ivliicli the fruit was grown also exert 
a very important influence on the length of time that it will 
keep. Large, overgrown specimens will not keep as well as 
smaller specimens with firmer flesh. This is why apples grown 
in sod orchards usually keep better than those grown in culti- 
vated orchards. Fruit grown on a light sandy soil generally 
does not keep so well as that grown on a heavier soil, though this 
is probably due largely to the fact that the fruit on the sandy soil 
is allowed to get too ripe before picking. Fertilizers certainly 
exert an influence on keeping. Where too much nitrogen is 
used and the fruit is large and soft it will not keep so long 
after it has reached maturity. On the other hand, the maturing 
of such fruit is delayed. Good color is desirable because it 
means a fully developed fruit, but overcolor is not desirable 
because it indicates that the fruit may be past the best stage 
of maturity. 



QUESTIONS 257 

The type of package used in storage certainly influences the 
keeping quality. A tight package seems generally to give 
better results than an open one, and a relatively small package 
is better than a large one, probably because the smaller body of 
fruit does not generate so much heat. The weight of the fruit 
in the larger package may also have an influence. A bushel 
box of apples is often found to keep better than a barrel of 
the same apples. 

Wrapping the fruit will usually cause it to keep better. It 
seems to prolong its life and of course prevents bruising and 
the transfer of disease from one specimen to another. Any 
type of "wrapping," from storing the fruit in sand or sawdust 
to the use of an oiled wrapper, will assist its keeping. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss the influence of storage in preventing forced sales of fruit. 

2. How does good storage prevent gluts in the market? 

3. How does it increase consumption? 

4. In what way does storage affect the price of fruit? 

5. Give several characteristics of an ideal storage plant. 

6. Describe an ammonia cooling system. 

7. Describe the system of cooling with chloride of calcium brine and ice. 

8. Describe the frost-proof storage house. 

9. Give the wall construction of a well-insulated storage house. 

10. How does the method of handling fruit affect its keeping qualities? 

11. What influence on keeping quality has the degree of maturity at 

picking time? 

12. How is the keeping of fruit affected by delay in storage? 

13. Give other influences aflecting keeping quality. 



17 



CHAPTER XIX 
GRADING AND PACKING 

These two operations are very intimately associated and are 
frequently performed by one operator at the same time. But 
as methods improve there is more and more tendency to separate 
the two and make the grading an operation by itself. "While 
we hear much less about this grading of fruit than w^e do about 
packing it, and while fruit is frequently put upon the market 
without any grading whatever, yet there is no doubt that where 
anything like careful grading is done it requires more judgment 
and closer attention to the business in hand than packing does. 
Once a man learns the art, he can pack apples, for example, 
into a box without much thought, provided they have been 
graded and sized. It is largely a mechanical operation. But 
when he is grading apples into from four to six grades, varying 
in size and color, he must look critically at every fruit he handles. 

Reason for Grading. — Another point emphasizing the im- 
portance of grading which is frequently overlooked is the poor 
impression which a mixed lot of fruit always gives. It is worth 
while to take out the large apples, and sell them separately, 
merely for the improvement it makes in the appearance and price 
of the medium-sized apples that remain. A customer will be 
perfectly satisfied with an apple two and a half inches in 
diameter, provided all the rest of the apples in the package are 
of about the same size. But put this size in wdth some of three- 
inch and larger specimens and he objects strenuously and thinks 
he is being cheated. By all means grade carefully for any sort 
of good fruit. 

Grades for Apples. — Just what the standard for the different 
grades shall be, and just what names shall be used, is a some- 
what mixed question at present. The grades for apples in 
barrels recognized by the United States and the Canadian 
federal laws are discussed in Chapter XXII. For boxed apples 
the usual designations recognized by our western growers are 
258 



WESTERN GRADES FOR APPLES 259 

Extra Fancy, Fancy, and Choice (grade C), which are defined as 
follows : 

Extra Fancy. — In this grade all apples shall be sound, smooth, 
free from worms, worm stings, scale, water core, sun damages 
or diseases of any kind, and of proper shape, according to the 
variety. No apples smaller than 165s shall be allowed in this 
grade (this is the number of apples required to fill a bushel box). 
No apples that are of a red variety that are not at least 
three-fourths red, except Rome Beauties one-half red, will be 
taken in this grade. Yellow Newtowns, White Winter Pear- 
mains, Grimes Golden, Bellflowers, Winter Bananas and Red 
Cheek Pippins will be allowed in this grade, but no other variety 
of yellow apples. Winter Bananas and Red Cheek Pippin 
must show a red cheek. 

Fancy. — In this grade also all apples must be smooth, sound, 
free from bruises, blemishes, worms, worm stings, water core, 
sun damages or diseases of any kind, and of proper shape, accord- 
ing to the variety. No apples smaller than 165s shall be allowed 
in this grade, excepting apples of the following varieties, which 
will be accepted when packed as small as 200 apples to the 
box: Winesaps, Jonathans and Missouri Pippins when red all 
over. All apples of red varieties ranging in color from three- 
fourths red down to one-third red will be included in this grade. 
All varieties of yellow apples will be allowed in this grade. 

Grade C. — This grade shall be made up of all merchantable 
apples not included in the Extra Fancy and Fancy grades. 
These apples must be sound and free from bruises, worm stings 
and other diseases. Skin to be unbroken, but will include mis- 
shapen apples or apples having a limb mark or other similar 
defect. This grade will include apples of all colors and as small 
as 200s, but no smaller. It is optional with the buyer whether 
this grade be wrapped or not. 

Western Grades for Apples. — It will be seen, therefore, 
that as yet our grade names and definitions are in process 
of evolution and are still somewhat variable. Doubtless we 
shall see more and more uniformity in both of these matters. 
But the grade name and the grade definition are of minor im- 



260 GRADING AND PACKING 

portance compared to the grading, and if growers will grade 
carefully and uniformly, and will pack honestly and skilfully, 
there is likely to be little difficulty about names. 

FRUIT PACKING 

Now as to the question of packing, we need, first of all, a satis- 
factory equipment. This means suitable packages, a packing 
table of some kind, usually a press, besides such accessories as 
wraps, stencils, stemmers for apples, and various other things 
varying with different fruits and different types of packing. 

Packages for Apples. — Since the package will, to a consider- 
able extent, determine the kind of equipment needed, we may 
begin with a discussion of packages in general. For apples we 
have principally the barrel and the bushel box. Both of these 
packages have their advocates and both have their place in 
marketing apples. The barrel is the typical eastern package, 
while the box is used in the West to the exclusion of all other 
packages. The box, however, is gaining ground, though slowly, 
among the eastern growers. The claims for the box, which seem 
to be fairly well founded, are that it carries the fruit in better 
condition, that it is a more attractive package, and that its 
smaller size makes it more convenient for many consumers. On 
the other hand, the barrel is an old and well recognized package 
(Fig. 124). Fruit can be handled in it at less cost than in 
boxes and it will stand rough usage in transit much better than 
the box. We ought not to have rough usage, but neither ought 
we to have a great many other things that we do have. Nothing 
but apples of the very highest grade ought to go into boxes. It 
is essentially a high-grade package, and if a customer finds poor 
fruit in it he feels defrauded and rightly so. The writer would 
meet the argument that there is a demand for small quantities of 
the poorer grades by suggesting that these be put in some other 
type of package. Possibly the flat bushel box generally used for 
vegetables might be used for these lower grades of apples or 
some type of basket might be selected, but the regular bushel 
apple box should be reserved for good fruit. One large grower 
solved this problem by nsingr a special type of the round, 
Delaware peach basket for his ''drops" and other lower 
grades of apples. These grades were never put into any other 



PEACHES 261 

receptacles, and no good apples were ever put into these baskets. 
There is a third class of package for apples which is just now 
coming into prominence and which is bound to become of more 
and more importance. That is the small retail package holding 
from a few quarts up to perhaps half a bushel. These packages 
are principally of two types, either baskets or cartons. They have 
the advantages from the standpoint of the consumer, that they 
can be carried easily in the hand, that they keep the fruit in 
good condition and that they hold so little fruit that the ques- 
tion of storage is not important. They thus obviate the greatest 
difficulty which is experienced, with the barrel, and even with 
the box, namely that the ordinary household cannot use all the 
apples before they begin to decay. 




Fig. 124. — An attractive face to a barrel of apples. Such a barrel of apples is sure to 
attract attention, and if the middle is as good as the face it is sure to make friends. 

For pears we have almost the same packages as for apples, 
except that they are shipped quite largely in half barrels instead 
of in barrels, and that the pear box is of a different size from 
the apple box, being 18 x 11% x 8% inches inside measure. 

Peaches are shipped principally in three types of packages : 
The Delaware peach basket, holding from 5 quarts to 16 quarts, 
usually in the latter size ; the Georgia six-basket carrier ; and the 
climax peach basket, a relatively new package. One of the 
climax baskets is shown, filled with apples, in Figure 145. It 
has the advantage of being a small package which is quite rigid 
so as to protect the fruit well. It also packs well into cars. 



262 GRADING AND PACKING 

In western sections we have also the four-basket carrier and the 
peach box. The box is 18 inches long by lli/o. inches wide and 
is made in three different depths — 4, 4% and 5 inches. 

Plums are packed in practically the same packages as peaches. 

Cherries go to market principally in two kinds of packages, 
either in strawberry baskets and crates or, the fancy western 
cherries, in boxes varying in capacity from eight to thirty pounds. 
Sometimes these fancy cherries are also packed in one-pound 
cartons. 

Packing Apples. — Since the barrel must long remain the most 
important package for apples it seems worth while to discuss, 




Fig. 125. — Stemmers; shears for removing the stems from the face apples when packing 

in barrels. 

in some detail, the equipment for packing apples in barrels and 
the operation of so packing them. 

The table for barrel packing ought to be fairly large, for, the 
fruit being rarely graded beforehand, the operator needs a 
rather large supply from which to choose. A table which is 
three by six feet and six inches deep (with six-inch boards 
around) will be found a good size, and the sides and bottom 
should be padded with or made of burlap or some such material 
to keep the fruit from bruising. A table of this size which is 
mounted upon two carpenter's '' horses," instead of having 
rigid legs of its own, can be hung up on the wall out of the way 



PACKING APPLES 



263 



when not in use. There should also be several swing-bail baskets 
and a press. 

There are several styles of presses on the market, principally 
either the lever or the screw type. The screw press with a 
circle follower shown in Figure 127 is preferable, but the lever 
press is very popular with many packers and can perhaps be 
worked more quickly, but it may not do quite as good work. 
The circular follower is much better than the old bar-follower 



Fig. 126. 



Fig. 127. 




Fig. 126. — The ordinary barrel press with a bar follower. This is not nearly so good as the 
press shown in Figure 127. 

Fig. 127. — Barrel press with circle follower. Any blacksmith can make such a follower and 
it is a great improvement over the old bar follower. 

because it touches the entire circumference of the barrel head, 
thus insuring its going down more evenly than with the bar 
(Fig. 126) . Presses with circular followers are now manufactured 
and may be secured from some dealers, or the follower may be 
made by any good blacksmith, using quarter-inch bar iron. 

In addition to the above there should be a stemmer (Fig. 125) 
for removing the stems from the apples of the face layer, a good 
stencil for marking the head, and a false or padded head. The 



264 



GRADING AND PACKING 



false head is merely a round piece of board sligMy smaller than 
the barrel head and padded on one side. This is used when the 
barrel is nearly full, for pressing the apples down in order to 
get a smooth surface on which to lay the ' ' tail ' ' or last layer of 
the barrel. In packing good fruit one ought also to have 
corrugated pasteboard heads, paper caps and lace circles. The 
corrugated cardboard heads are circular and just large enough 
to fit into the head of the barrel and are designed to prevent 
bruising of the face layer of apples. It ought to be said here 

that some orchard men prefer 
not to use these, but others 
believe that they serve a use- 
ful purpose. The paper cap 
is a similar affair except that 
it is of paper and may also be 
printed (Fig. 152), and is de- 
signed as an additional pro- 
tection and for advertising 
purposes. The lace circle 
(Fig. 124) is merely for 
ornament, to make the barrel 
look attractive when opened 
in the market. 

The operation of packing 
a barrel of apples in new bar- 
rels may now be given in de- 
tail. First, nail one head of 
the barrel, using about six five-penny nails; next, loosen the 
hoops at the other end and take out this head ; third, drive down 
the quarter hoops snug and nail them with three small nails (lath 
nails are good), which should always be clinched on the inside of 
the barrel, otherwise many apples will be damaged. Put into the 
barrel a corrugated head with the smooth side up, a paper cap 
and a lace circle. Be sure that the latter is put in with the best 
side down so that when the barrel is opened in market that side 
will be seen and not the reverse side. 

The barrel is now ready to be filled. Select the apples for 




Fig. 128. — Swing-bail basket used in packing 
apples in barrels. 



PACKING APPLES 



265 



the face of the barrel. These should be of uniform size and color 
(Figs. 129, 130, and 131) and should fairly represent the con- 
tents of the barrel. The interior of the barrel may contain 
smaller apples than the face, but it should also contain some 
that are larger. "Where the face apples are of uniform size 
it is possible to tell beforehand exactly how many it will take 
of any particular size to lay the face. The following table 
gives the numbers and arrangement of the different sizes : 



Table VI. — Number and Arrangement of Facing Apples in Barrel. 


Diameter of Apples 


Number of Apples 
in Face 


Number of Circles 
in Face 


Number in Center 
of Face 


Inches 








2}i 


48 


3 


3 


2H 


40 


3 


1 


2% 


34 


3 





2% 


31 


2 


4 


3 


27 


2 


3 


3K 


23 


2 


2 


3K 


19 


2 


1 



The apples intended for the face should be placed in a basket 
as selected (Fig. 128), and the stem clipped out of each one 
(Fig. 125). If the stem is not removed it will be bent over when 
the apple is placed on the head of the barrel, in laying the face, 
and will usually break the skin, thus giving an opportunity for 
decay to start. When the required number of apples have been 
selected, lower the basket into the barrel and pour out the 
apples very carefully. Next begin and lay a row of apples, 
stem end down, around the outside of the barrel; then a second 
row and so on until the entire face is laid. Figures 129, 130 
and 131 will give a good idea of the arrangement of the apples 
in the different faces. Having laid the face there are three 
different ways in which we may proceed. First, we may pour in 
the apples without attempting to place any more ; or, second, we 
may place a second layer, or face, directly upon the first one; 
or, third, we may select apples which have a red cheek (provided 
we are packing a red variety) and place an apple, with the red 
cheek down, in each opening in the face already laid. This 



266 



GRADING AND PACKING 




Fig. 129. — Face of a barrel of apples using nineteen applt-s LI '2 imliLS in .liaineter: one apple 
in the center of two circles. 

Fio. 130. — Face of a barrel of apples using 27 apples 3 inches in diameter; three apples in 
the center of two circles, 

FiQ. 131. — Face of a barrel of apples using 40 apples, 2)4 inches in diameter; one apple 
in the center of three circles, 



PACKING APPLES 



267 



last is considered by far the best method. It accomplishes two 
important objects. It fills up the openings in the face so that 
the buyer gets the impression of a full, solid barrel of apples 
instead of a lot of open space; and the red cheeks look well, 
setting off the apples of the face. 

Having laid the face, we next proceed to fill up the barrel. 
The apples are put into the baskets and each basket, as filled, is 




Fia. 132. 



-A good type of packing table for boxing apples. Notice the rack for holding the 
box and the hood for holding the wrapping paper. 



lowered into the barrel and carefully emptied. After about 
three baskets have been put in, the barrel should be shaken or 
''racked" in order to settle them into place. The first racking 
is deferred until three baskets are in so that there may be weight 
enough upon the face apples to hold them in place, but there- 
after the barrel should be racked after each basket is emptied 
until it is nearly full. Then the "false head" is put in and the 
barrel is given a thorough shaking and at the same time the 



268 



GRADING AND PACKING 



operator exerts as much pressure by hand as lie can upon this 
head. The object of this, as before explained, is to get a smooth 
surface on which to lay the ^'tail" or last layer of apples. 

The "tailing off" of the barrel is the supreme test of good 
packing. The whole object is to lay a smooth surface so that 
when the pressure is put on it will be distributed over the 
entire face and not confined to a few spots, as it will be if a 
few apples stick up above the rest. Many packers tip the barrel 



Fig. 133. 



Fig. 134. 




Fig. 133. — Diagram showing method of starting the 2-2 pack. 
Fig. 134. — Diagram showing the method of starting the 3-2 pack. 

slightly in order to slant the face and then begin to lay the 
apples at the lower side of this slanting surface. In this way 
the apples will stay in place better than if the surface is level. 
The proper height for this last layer is a somewhat debatable 
point. It depends on the variety and on the distance the fruit 
is to be shipped. Some varieties, such as Russets, require and 
will stand a good deal of pressure. Others, such as Gravenstein 
and Northern Spy, will not stand so much. Among manj^ 
experienced packers the general opinion is that where the apples 



PACKING APPLES 



269 



are well racked, so as to get every one into its place and leave 
no open spaces, the apples should not project more than a half 
inch above the barrel even when they are to be exported. At 
this end of the barrel many packers use what is called a ' * cushion- 
head" to put between the fruit and the head of the barrel. 
This cushion-head is merely a pad of excelsior enclosed in paper 
and is intended to relieve the apples from some of the bruising 



Fia. 135. 



Fig. 136. 




Fig. 135. — Diagram showing the arrangement of apples in the first and third layers of a 2-2 
box of apples with 96 apples in the box. 

Fig. 136. — Diagram showing the arrangement of apples in the second and fourth layers 
of a 2-2 box of apples with 96 apples in the box. 

that they would otherwise get. They serve a useful purpose 
and they are in fairly general use among growers. 

Following the tailing of the barrel, the cushion-head is put in 
place, then the head of the barrel, and lastly the press. The 
head is then pressed down and nailed in with six nails. These 
should be driven through the upper hoop and the staves into 
the head. Never nail the second hoop at either end of the 
barrel. 



270 GRADING AND PACKING 

Our barrel is now ready for marking, which is done with a 
stencil. This ought to contain the name and address of the 
grower and the name and grade of the apple. And above all the 
stencil should be of plain, large letters. 

Scoring Barrels of Apples. — As an indication of the relative 
importance which is placed upon the fruit, packing and package 
for a barrel of apples it may be worth while to insert here the 
score card used in judging barrels at the Third New England 
Fruit Show, held in Boston in November, 1913. 

Score Card for Barrels of a Given Variety of Apple 

Fruit. — Texture and flavor 100 

Size 100 

Color 150 

Uniformity 150 

Freedom from blemishes 150 

650 

Package. — Stares 10 

Hoops 10 

Heads 10 

Nailing 20 

Marking 20 

70 

Packing. — Facing 70 

Tailing 60 

Pressing 70 

Packing 80 

280 

Total 1000 

Packing apples in boxes requires more skill than packing 
them in barrels. That is one objection to the box. Still, any 
man who is at all "handy" will very soon pick up the principal 
points, and it is then largely a matter of practice. There are 
two principal sizes of boxes used. One is 10% inches deep by 
11% inches wide by 18 inches long inside measure, and the other 
10 by 11 by 20 inches. The first shape is preferable, but the 
capacity is a trifle less. The material for the ends should be 
% inch thick, that of the sides % inch and the top and bottom 
14 inch. 



PACKING APPLES IN BOXES 



271 



A good type of packing table for boxes is shown in Figure 
132. It is more shallow and holds fewer apples than the table 
used for barrels and there is a rack or shelf at one end to hold 
the box in a slightly slanting position while it is being filled. 
There should also be a hood for holding the wraps. A con- 
venient type, made of galvanized sheet iron, is shown on the 
left-hand side of the packed box in Figure 132. 



Fia. 137. 



Fig. 138. 




Fig. 137. — Diagram showing the arrangement of apples in the first, third and fifth layers 
of a 3-2 box of apples with ISS apples in the box. 

Fig. 138. — Diagram showing the arrangement of apples in the second and fourth layers 
of a 3-2 box of apples with 188 apples in the box. 



Most boxed apples should be wrapped, and various kinds of 
tissue and other light papers are used for the purpose. If they 
can be printed, at least for the top and bottom layers, so much 
the better. The principal advantages of wrapping the apples 
are that the wraps act as a padding, preventing bruises and 
enabling the operator to pack the fruit more tightly; that they 
prevent the germs of rots being transferred from one apple to 
another and that they prolong the life of the apples. Wraps 
are used in varying sizes, according to the size of the apples to 



272 



GRADING AND PACKING 



be packed, but the 9 by 9 inch size will be found most useful. 
There should also be layer-papers, made of heavy cardboard in 
sheets 11 by 17^^ inches, to be used between the layers of apples ; 
and also lining papers, which are sheets 171/4 by 36 inches, of 
ordinary wrapping paper or a similar weight. These are for 
lining the boxes. 

It is difficult and probably impossible to give sufficiently ex- 
plicit directions for the actual packing of the box, so that one 
who is unfamiliar with the operation can become an expert. In 

box packing we are all of us Missou- 
rians to the extent of ''needing to be 
shown," but it is hoped that with the 
help of the diagrams (Figs. 133-139) 
anyone can get a start in the work. 

There are many different plans or 
''packs" in boxing apples, but they 
may practically all be classified under 
two heads, the "straight" and the 
"diagonal." There is a third type of 
pack, known as the "offset pack," 
which differs from the diagonal 
slightly; but it is not very generally 
used, and will be omitted from our brief 
discussion. As a matter of fact, the 
straight pack is now rarely used, as it 
bruises the apples much more than the 
diagonal. Most of the diagonal packs are 
either "three-two" or "two-two." 
In starting the first layer of the three-two pack, place an apple 
in the lower right-hand comer, the second one in the lower left- 
hand comer and the third half way between these two. This 
leaves two spaces, one on either side of the middle apple, and 
the fourth and fifth apples are slipped into these spaces. This, 
again, leaves three spaces, in which three apples are placed; 
and so on, until the layer is completed. The method of starting 
this pack is shown in Figure 134. The second layer is started 
by putting an apple over each of the spaces between the apples 



T^^sr-sr^ 



Fig. 139. — Diagram showing 
the " straight " pack. This pack 
is now little used, as it bruises the 
apples more than any other pack. 



PACKING APPLES IN BOXES 



273 



of the first layer; that is, this second layer is started with two 
apples instead of three. This brings each apple of the second 
layer over a space of the layer below, instead of its resting 
directly upon an apple of that layer, as in the "straight" pack. 
There is, therefore, considerable "give" to this pack, and con- 
sequently much less bruising of the fruit. 

The two-two pack is started by placing an apple in the lower 
right-hand corner and a second one in the middle of the space 
remaining. The next two ap- 
ples are placed in the spaces 
left by the first two, and so on 
(Figs. 135 and 136). 

Layer paper may or may 
not be used in box packing. 
When to use it is a point that 
can be learned only by experi- 
ence. It is used with certain 
sizes and shapes of apples in 
order to bring them high 
enough to get the required 
firmness or compactness in 
the box. 

The bulge or swell is a cru- 
cial matter in box packing. 
The apples must be put into 
the box in such a way that 
when the top is put on and 
nailed down, both the top 
and bottom of the box are 
pressed out in the middle, giving a bulge. It is the pressure 
exerted by this bulge in the top and bottom boards which keeps 
the apples tight in the box. Of course the bulge is produced by 
having the mass or body of apples in the box thicker in the 
middle than it is at the ends. Different packers secure this 
bulge in different ways, but the three principal methods seem to 
be as follows: First, pack the apples a little tighter in the 
central part of each layer than they are at the ends. In this 
18 




^JS0* 



Fig. 140. — A western type of box press. 



274 GRADING AND PACKING 

way, when the cover is nailed on, the apples press together 
more at the ends than in the middle and we get the bulge as a 
result. Second, selecting just a little larger apples for this 




Fig. 141. — An excellent type of box press which can be made at home by anyone who is 

handy with tools. 



middle part of each layer. Third, turn the apples on the side 
or end in order to bring them at the right height. Some packers 
will tell you that they do not do anythiyig to secure the bulge, 



PACKING FRUIT INTO OTHER TYPES OF PACKAGES 275 

that it ''just comes that way," but of course this merely means 
that in their cases the method is carried out unconsciously. 

Scoring Boxes of Apples. — The followdng score card is the- 
one used in judging boxes at the New England Fruit Show in 
Boston in 1913. It represents fairly accurately the relative 
importance placed on the various points which enter into a well- 
packed box of apples. 

Score Card for Boxes of a Given Variety of Apples 

Fruit. — Texture and flavor 100 

Size 100 

Color 150 

Uniformity 150 

Freedom from blemishes 150 

650 

Package. — Material 30 

Marking 10 

Solidity (nailing, cleats, etc.) 10 

50 

Packing. — Bulge or swell 100 

Alignment 20 

Height of ends 60 

Compactness 80 

Attractiveness and style of pack 40 

300 

Total 1000 

The packing of fruit into the other types of packages has not 
been so well reduced to a system, and in many cases probably 
never wdll be. It is largely a question of getting a smooth, 
attractive "face" on the package that shall fairly represent the 
contents and still tempt the customer to buy (Pigs. 145, 146, 
147 and 148). 

QUESTIONS 

1.. What are the advantages of grading fruit? 

2. Name and define three standard grades of apples. 

3. Mention three kinds of apple packages and give the advantages of each. 

4. What packages are used for pears? 

5. What for peaches? 



276 GRADING AND PACKING 

6. What for plums? 

7. What for cherries? 

8. Give a list of the equipment needed in packing barrels of apples. 

9. How is the barrel prepared for packing? 

10. Describe the " facing "' of the barrel. 

11. How is the barrel then filled? 

12. Describe how to place the apples of the last layer, and " head up " the 

barrel. 

13. What are the main points considered in scoring barrels of apples? 

14. Name the different kinds of " packs " for boxes. 

15. Describe the packing of apples in boxes. 

16. What are the points considered in scoring boxes of apples? 

17. What styles of fruit packages have you seen in market? 



CHAPTER XX 
MARKETING 

The greatest single problem in marketing fruit is to have 
good fruit (Fig. 142). Beside this problem all others sink into 
insignificance. Given such fruit there can be developed a 
market for almost any quantity. In fact, it will sell itself. 
If this truth could only be brought home to our orchard men, 
and if they could only be made to adopt such methods as would 




Fig. 142. — The greatest single problem in marketing fruit is to have good fruit. Fruit 
like that shown above, which wad picked up in the local markec at Amherst, will not tend 
to increase the consumption. 

insure yearly crops of such fruit (and there are methods that 
will make this reasonably certain), there would be little difficulty 
in anything else. In fact, the fruit growers' millennium would 
have arrived. Some of the things which seem most important 
in bringing about this result have been discussed in this book. 

The next greatest problem is to pack it honestly and care- 
fully. This was discussed in the last chapter. The man whose 
fruit is invariably well packed, and who has the reputation of 
getting just as good, or a little better, fruit in the middle of the 
package than is on top, is never going to lack for customers. 

277 



278 



MARKETING 



The discussion in this chapter will presuppose that the orchardist 
has been measurably successful in growing a crop of good fruit, 
and that it has been properly packed for market. How shall it 
be disposed of to the best advantage ? This is our next problem. 
The Best Market. — We ought first to consider with the ut- 
most care just what are the requirements of the particular 
market we intend to supply. As already suggested, under the 




Fig. 14.3. — Boxes of western apples. Tho use of the box and careful, honest packing have 

made the wedtern apple famous. 



discussion of varieties, the general type of market should be 
decided upon before the orchard is ever set. Of course condi- 
tions are going to control largely whether the owner should 
develop a special or retail market, or whether he is going to 
rely upon the general market. If he is too far away from 
his customers it is relatively difficult to develop a special market. 
Yet it is surprising to what an extent a special market may be 
developed by proper methods when one has really fine fruit 



THE BEST MARKET 



279 



(Fig. 143). There is not the slightest question that the special, 
retail market is the one which pays if it is well worked up. 

Some one has said that the great difficulty with farmers is 
that they sell at wholesale and buy at retail; and this difficulty 
is nowhere better shown than in the fruit business. The less 
fruit you can sell a customer, at one time, the more he is willing 
to pay for it. Did you ever stop to think of that? Take it in 
apples. A man is usually quite willing to pay five cents for a 
single apple and sometimes ten cents for a really fine one ; and 
he thinks he is getting a bargain at two for five. But attempt to 
sell him a barrel at these rates, and he thinks that you are com- 
mitting highway robbery. A barrel will hold about three hundred 
and fifty to four hundred apples of average size. Taking the 
latter number, if these are sold at ten cents it means $40; at 
five cents, $20 ; and at two for five $10 for the barrel. No one 
would suggest that we sell apples at $40 per barrel, but we should 
come just as near to retailing them direct to the consumer as 
we can. 

The following table brings out the point just discussed and 
is worthy of study by every fruit grower: 



Table VII. — Value of a Barrel of Apples when Sold in Retail Lots, Estimating 
350 Apples per Barrel 



Unit of Quantity- 



Single apple 

Single apple 

Single apple 

One dozen apples . 
One dozen apples. 
One dozen apples. 
One dozen apples. 
One peck apples. . 
One peck apples. . 
One peck apples. . 
One bushel apples 
One bushel apples 
One bushel apples 
One bushel apples 



Price per Unit 


Value of a Barrel at 
This Rate 


23^c. each 


$ 8.75 


oc. each 


17.50 


10c. each 


35.00 


2.5c. dozen 


7.29 


40c. dozen 


11.66 


50c. dozen 


14.58 


60c. dozen 


17.50 


25c. peck 


3.00 


50c. peck 


6.00 


60c. peck 


7.20 


$1.00 bushel 


3.00 


1.50 bushel 


4.50 


2.00 bushel 


6.00 


2.50 bushel 


7.50 



280 



MARKETING 



The special market, too, will usually respond at once to any 
improvement in quality or pack (Figs. 144, 145, 146 and 147). 
If you are selling through a good grocery store, which is one of 
the very best methods, the consumer knows who furnishes the 
fruit, and if it is good he asks for more of your brand ; while 
if you ship into the general market there is much less chance 
that special effort will receive special reward. "Where the 
grower can secure such a market he should, if possible, retain 
control of the price for which the fruit is sold. If he is reason- 
ably close to his market, and if he has confidence in his grocery- 
man, he can usually afford 
to assume any loss due to 
decay. When this is done the 
grocer is usually willing to 
accept really good fruit on the 
commission basis. 

AVhen the grower does keep 
control of the price he can 
lower it if necessary to move 
his crop of perishable fruit 
faster; and at the same time 
that he is getting more for his 
fruit the consumer is usually 
paying less for it. 

Then if a man is to develop 
and maintain this special mar- 
ket, it is very desirable that 
he should keep up a continu- 
ous supply of each fruit. 
This was discussed under varieties, but is worth mention- 
ing again. If your customers are watching for your brand 
do not disappoint them at any point in the season. The writer 
recalls an instance where a man actually refused a dollar a 
barrel more for his Spies than he could get at his regular 
market because he did not want to disappoint and lose his 
customers. To carry out this plan the fruit grower must not 
only have a good list of varieties but he should have good 
storage facilities as well. 




Fig. 144. — Pasteboard carton for fancy 
apples. This package •will carry the fruit 
perfectly, but it is too costly for anything 
but very high-grade fruit. 



THE GENERAL MARKET 



281 



The General Market. — Where the orchard is situated so that 
the owner cannot develop a retail market he must rely on the 
general market. In this case he sells either to a buyer at the 
orchard or through a commission man. There is a good deal 
to be said in favor of the former method. The buyer and the 
seller are more nearly on an equality than in the latter. If the 
buyer does not want to pay what the grower thinks the fruit is 
worth it can remain on the farm. And an additional advantage is 




Fig. 145. — The climax peach basket used as a retail package for apples. This package 
has much to commend it. It is cheap, carries the fruit in good condition and will pack 
well into cars. 

that one gets rid of the entire crop with relatively little worry, 
and he can then give his attention to other matters. He also 
has his money for use and is saved considerable loss from shrink- 
age. On the whole, there is considerable argument for selling 
to a buyer at the orchard. It is not as good as the retail plan, 
but stands next to it. 

Frequently, however, the grower has to sell through a com- 
mission man. This is the poorest type of marketing, not because 



282 



MARKETING 



connnission men are dishonest, but from the very nature of the 
method. Even the commission men themselves will admit that 
there are dishonest men in the business, which makes the situation 
still worse. It puts temptation in the path of the commission 
man which is unnecessary. There is the same objection to it as to 
the sod-culture method. It may do when properly carried out, 
but there is always danger that it will fail. The chief objections 
to this plan are two; 




Fia. 146. — Climax peach basket with cover on. This type of cover holds the package rigid 

so that the fruit is not damaged. 



First, the grower is practically at the mercy of the commis- 
sion man. The latter can put down any amount he chooses in 
making his returns and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the 
grower will never be the wiser. Such laws as the one in New 
York, which is discussed in Chapter XXII, will undoubtedly 
help to mend matters, but they can not altogether remove the 
difficulty. The grower is still very largely at the mercy of the 
commission man. 



COOPERATIVE MARKETING 



283 



The second objection is that by this method there is usually 
little chance of holding the fruit, in case the market is not satis- 
factory. The fruit is there, it must be disposed of, and the seller 
must take what he can get for it. 

Under these circumstances it becomes absolutely essential 
to find an honest commission man. There are plenty of them. 
Having found one then stick to him. Do not be led away simply 
because your neighbor happens to get a little more for his fruit 
on a certain day than you did. Perhaps his fruit was better or 
perhaps his commission man was simply trying to draw trade. 



Fig. U; 



Fig. U8. 




Pig. 147. — Splint basket used for apples. A store window filled with these baskets makes 
an attractive sight and one which it is difficult for the customer to pasd by. 

Fig. 148. — An attractive package for the retail trade. 

It is a very common custom, and especially with the man who is 
not too scrupulous, to make some uncommonly good returns early 
in the season in order to draw trade. Do not be fooled by it. 
Call the attention of your own commission man to it if you 
like ; it may spur him on. But do not leave him. 

Cooperative Marketing. — The best method of marketing fruit 
where it can be properly carried out is undoubtedly cooperation. 
The western states have amply demonstrated this in the splendid 
results that they have secured. The chief advantages of coopera- 
tion seem to be : 



284 MARKETING 

1. It utilizes the best business talent of the community. 
This is a crucial point. It is only one man in a thousand who 
has the head to run such a business, and the cooperative method 
picks him out and lets him run the business for the community. 
The rest of the men are free to devote their attention to produc- 
ing a crop of good fruit for the manager to sell, and anyone who 
has ever tried it knows that this is a serious enough proposition 
in itself. It is no discredit to farmers as a class to say that not 
many of them are good business men. Neither are many of the 
men in the hardware business. But the fellows who are not do 
not try to manage the business. They do something else — sell 
goods or make goods. 

2. The distribution of the output is better. The members do 
not all ship to Boston one day and to New York the next, but all 
the markets are uniformly supplied. The manager looks after 
that. If there is an association of associations, as there usually 
is when the scheme is w^ll started, the control of the distribution 
is just that much better. 

3. The fruit is handled in large lots and therefore better 
freight rates can be secured. The car-load shipment is much 
more economical than the small lot. 

4. The association can adopt methods of advertising that 
would not be open to the single grower. As a matter of fact, 
the single grower usually does not advertise at all; but even if 
he does, there are many kinds of advertising that he cannot 
afford. 

5. The manager of an association can keep in telegraphic 
touch with the markets and thus know better whether to ship 
or not, and, if so, where. 

Objections to Cooperation. — All these advantages and many 
more are claimed and usually admitted for cooperation. Then 
why do we not have more associations? There are probably 
many reasons, but the one chiefly responsible seems to be con- 
servatism. The farmer has always run his own business and 
thinks he can do so still. Distrust of each other among farmers 
is also usually given and probably is an important reason for 
lack of cooperation. Someone has said that most men would 



UTILIZING LOW-GRADE FRUITS 285 

rather lose two dollars than see their neighbor make one, and 
while this principle can hardly be endorsed, there is undoubtedly 
some truth in it. Another very important reason seems to be 
that the best growers in the community usually do not make 
much by joining the association and sometimes even lose some- 
thing. This is because they have already been receiving the 
highest prices for fancy fruits. Since they are the ones who 
must usually take the lead in such matters, the scheme is likely to 
languish unless they are of a somewhat self-sacrificing turn of 
mind. 

A further difficulty which is usually experienced is that the 
packing varies too much in the different packing houses. This 
is pretty certain to be so unless the packing: is all done under 
one central supervision. This plan has been used in some 
sections of the northwest and seems to work well. An experi- 
enced packer is put in charge of each gang of hands, and he is 
responsible, not to the owner of the fruit, but to the association. 
This obviates the difficulty which one speaker expressed by 
saying that no man ought to pack his own apples because it is 
so hard for him to see a worm-hole. 

Utilizing Low-grade Fruits. — It remains to say a word about 
utilizing the poorer grades of fruit. Of course, we may say that 
there should not be any such grades, and it is quite true that 
entirely too much of our fruit belongs in this class. But even 
with the best of treatment there is going to be some of this sort 
of fruit produced, and it is a Yery important question what dis- 
posal should be made of it. Usually it is put on the market and 
allowed to bring what it will. Most men who market these 
inferior grades of fruit (such as poor windfalls and wormy 
specimens) do not appreciate the depressing influence which 
this sort of fruit has on the market. Because they are getting 
some cash for their fruit they think it is a better bargain 
than to let it lie on the ground and rot. Perhaps it is looking 
at it from their own selfish standpoint, though even this is to be 
doubted, if they are growing any good fruit in addition. But 
if we look at it from the standpoint of the larger interest of 
the industry as a whole there can be no doubt whatever. These 



286 MARKETING 

grades ought never to be put upon the market in a fresh state, 
but should be canned or made into jams, jellies, vinegar, and 
other products. Every fruit-growing community ought to have 
its canning plant, and the time will come when it will. Not 
only will such a plant take care of the poor grades at all times, 
but it will also take the good grades in times when the market 
is glutted, and thus reduce the frequency of such depressions. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss the effect of " quality " upon the marketing of fruit. 

2. Compare wholesale and retail markets. 

3. Show the advantage, to the grower, of selling in small quantities. 

4. What are the objections to selling through a commission man? 

5. What are the advantages of selling to a buyer at the orchard? 

6. What are the advantages of cooperative marketing ? 

7. What objections are there to this method? 

8. How should low-grade fruit be utilized? 



CHAPTER XXI. 

ADVERTISING. 

Did you ever stop to think what a tremendous amount of time, 
money, energy, brains, and a lot of other less important things, 
are spent on advertising, on getting the producer and the con- 
sumer together? And on making consumers out of non-con- 
sumers ? The writer is not much of a Socialist as yet, but when 
he thinks of the saving that would result if this one item of ad- 
vertising were cut out by eliminating competition, he is tempted 
to change over at once. So long, however, as the present arrange- 
ment holds and every one w^ho has anything to sell must depend 
on his own efforts to get rid of it, advertising is going to be a very 
important factor in any man's success. So strong is this factor 
that it seems worth while to devote an entire chapter to the 
subject. 

METHODS OF ADVERTISING 

There are innumerable ways in which one may advertise his 
wares, but the following are among the best : 

A Name and a Sign. — Have a name for the farm or the 
orchard. The more distinctive and attractive this name can be the 
more assistance it is going to be in advertising. But almost any 
name will help. It serves to locate the goods, to make the con- 
sumer remember where those fine apples came from. Having 
decided on a name, put up a sign on the highway. Let it be an 
attractive, artistic sign if you can, but even a plain, rectangular 
board with the name on it is better than nothing. If the name 
can have special local significance, and in particular if it can be 
such a name as is not likely to be chosen by anyone else, so much 
the better. The following are examples of good names: ** Hill- 
crest Orchards, " " Fairview Orchards " ' * Seaview Farm, " ' ' Bay 
Road Fruit Farm.'' 

A Farm Bulletin Board. — Do some local advertising at the 

287 



288 



ADVERTISING 



farm by means of a bulletin board on the highway. It will sur- 
prise anyone who has never tried it to see what this will do. In 
these days when so many people own automobiles, the number 
who will pass by the farm, particularly if it is on a main thorough- 
fare, is surprising. A great many of these travellers are city 
people, to whom anything from the country that is really good 
will appeal. Choice fruit appeals more than anything else. 
Usually these customers are perfectly willing to pay a good price, 



^::iitisiWili jpiifciiiBw 

.iiil^i^is 



^m 



Wmm 



W^U 



lUKHIIi^U^^HS^Ktl^ilK^^^sK 



LARGEST PEACH GROWERS IN THE WORLD 

325.000 Trees .<5^^^RCHARD C0.^fi^=^5h^^ 



HALE^O«?ir.^^yji:HALE.»o«;S,oNJ^^^^ 



iiMi^^MwiiiiiiiiwiaiEiiiii^^ 





Fig. 149. — Probably the most famous fruit label in use. 

too, for a fancy article, so that they really offer an excellent op- 
portunity to the enterprising orchardist. It is true that the sign 
has to be decidedly conspicuous to be seen by some of them as 
they flash past, but the fruit grower will soon get a name for fine 
peaches or choice apples, so that the automobile fraternity will 
be on the watch for his sign. And among the more slowly moving 
classes of humanity who pass by there will be many a one who will 
want something that is for sale. 

Adopt some attractive label for the package. The western 
apple and orange growers have worked this method more ardently 
and consistently than those of any other section, and no one can 



USE AN ATTRACTIVE PRINTED WRAP 289 

compute the sales it has made for them. The buyer is never left 
in doubt as to who grew this western fruit. 

As with the farm or orchard name, so with this label — the 
more distinctive it can be the better. It is not always the most 
gaudy label that is remembered the longest. Perhaps the most 



A MONTANA McINTOSH 

Young Orchards Bear Profitable 
Crops in Five Years. $500 to 31000 
Per Acre From Bearing Orchards 

tot Particulars Write to 

STEVENS Cf JONES 

Table Rock. Montana. 



Fig, 150. — A good type of advertising wrapper. Half natural width. 

widely known single label of this class is Mr. J. H. Hale 's famous 
red label, a cut of which is shown in Figure 149. 

Use an attractive printed wrap for such fruits as apples^ 
pears and oranges. When ordered in large numbers the printing 
does not add much to the cost of the wrap, and it may frequently 
be made the means of attracting the consumer's attention to the 



290 ADVERTISING 

orchard that produced the fruit. Here is a sample of a wrap 
which was sent out with a Montana Mcintosh apple. Evidently 
those men believed in the wrap as an advertising medium, and 
whether we swallow all the statements on the wrap or not, we shall 
at least swallow the apple (if it is good as most IMcIntosh apples 
are), and we shall know where to go when we want more apples 
like it (Fig, 150). 

Printed Matter in Fruit Packages. — Where fruit is sold in 
packages put some sort of advertising matter into the package. 

This is capable of endless 

^ . _ variations, but almost any 

; - of them will be of value. 

In apple barrels there is the 

''pulp-head" or the "paper- 

^^^ cap." A sample of these is 

4^ "" ^ shown in Figure 151. They 

^^ pofui\i Akin pmm m *f^ ° "^ 



%z^'^4. 



J. ELLIOT SMITH. 

FAIRVIEW ORCHARD. 




^//ri\V5»* 



differ only in that the ' ' pulp- 
head" is a light cardboard. 
^•* Besides furnishing an excel- 

lent type of advertising, they 
serve a useful purpose in 
protecting the fruit and, as 

[ „ ._ , with wraps, the extra cost of 

Fig. 151.— A good type of advertising for printing is relatively Small 

apple barrels. It calls the attention of the con- ., _ . 

sumer to the man who grew the fruit, which is WhCU they arC Ordcrcd lU 
a good thing to do if the fruit is good. 

large numbers. 

Another type of advertising which may be included in any 
sort of package is a little leaflet which guarantees the pack. 
Nothing will give your customer so much confidence in your fruit 
as to find out that you are willing to stand back of it. Here are 
reproduced two such leaflets from the opposite sides of the conti- 
nent, which are good examples of this excellent plan of adver- 
tising (Figs. 152 and 153). 

Still another type of leaflet is that which takes the customer 
into your confidence, tells him something about your orchard 
and your plans and, rather incidentally, about your fruit. It 
takes some literary ability to get out a good one, but if the grower 



PRINTED MATTER IN FRUIT PACKAGES 



291 



THIS BOX PACKED BY 

Packer No. — ^. 



If popchaser of this box finds any Ir- 
regularity In the pack, kindly return 
this card with any Information which 
may help us to make pack more perfect 
in the future^ 

Sierra Vista Packing Co. 

RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA 



Fig. 152, — An excellent "guarantee" label from the Pacific Coast. 



NOTICE! 



This fruit was packed at the "Riverside'' Fruit 
Farm, Middleton, Annapolis Co., Nova Scotia. 
Having large interest in growing orchards in the 
Annapolis Valley, 1 am very desirous of having my 
brand known abroad for its invariable reliability, 
both as to quality of fruit and honesty of packing. 
To insure this object, 1 hereby GOAHANTEE 
the contents of this package to be the same from 
head to head, and to be fairly represented by the 
face end; and I further authorize my consignees to 
refund the money paid for fruit of my packing 
which is proved not to be according to brand, in- 
jury in transit only excepted. 

G. 0. MILLER. 



Fig. 153. — Another guarantee label froni a^ eaatern orchardisti 



292 ADVERTISING 




%jhe c/reen Jiills 

of Vermont 



^Jimock >y(pples 



FiQ. 154. — Outside cover of an advertising leaflet sent out by Mr. Julian A. Dimock, of 
East Corinth, Vermont. 



PRINTED MATTER IN FRUIT PACKAGES 293 

has that ability or can secure it in any way, it will take with an 
especially good class of customers. Here is one of the best of this 
type (Fig. 154). The contents of the leaflet follow: 

We think that the apples grown in this orchard have a little the best 
flavor of any on earth. We wish that you could see the heavily laden 
trees amid the beauties of the prettiest part of old New England. 

Dame Nature was in a kindly mood when she fashioned this farm. 
She tipped the best land to the east that it might catch the earliest sun- 
shine, fed it with springs and protected it from the cold winds by placing 
it in an amphitheatre of encircling hills. The clover-covered fields stretch 
up over the hill-tops, while below them woodlands reach down to the 
little brooks in the valleys. Deer come into the fields, and, in the early 
mornings, stand and watch us with startled gaze. Scarlet tanagers build 
their nests in the apple trees and sing their love songs from the branches. 
Mother partridges play the old, old game of the broken wing when we 
come upon their little, scuttering broods. 

But it was Aleck Eastman's love for his trees that built up this 
orchard. Forty-six years ago he and his wife settled on this farm. Even 
in the first year Aleck planted a few trees, for he had inherited the love 
of them from his father. He planted new ones and trimmed up the old 
ones. Every year saw a few more trees set out, while his neighbors called 
him crazy for using good land that might be made to feed cows for his 
slips of trees. But Aleck loved his trees. He imported the first spray pump 
that came into this county and began to kill the bugs before they came. 
He got up early and he worked late. He did the work of two strong men 
that his trees might not suffer while his farm was carried on. 

Then, just when the orchard was coming into its own, Aleck awoke 
to the fact that it had outgrown him. His baby trees were grown to full 
treehood and as he became feebler the trees demanded more and more work. 
He could no longer climb to the topmost branches to prune and spray and 
pick. He had never hired help and he was too old to begin. In all his days 
no one had come to see his trees and show an appreciation of his work 
with them until I happened along. If any of his neighbors bought the 
place they would begin by cutting dovm the trees that he had spent his life 
to bring up. He could not carry it on any longer, so he proposed to sell 
the farm to me. That is why I am here to-day. 

These apples that Aleck Eastman raised I am offering to you. 

They are good because Dame Nature was thinking of apples when she 
fashioned this farm. 

They are good because Aleck put a labor of love into tending his trees. 

They are good because the rigors of the winters make hardy, full- 



294 ADVERTISING 

flavored fruit, and the bright sunshine of the summer lays on the color so 
the apples are fair to see. 

Fameusei. — Of the varieties which we grow we prefer the Fameuse 
(Snow), for we think it grows to perfection with us. Normally this is 
considered an early fall apple, but here it often keeps until spring. You 
know it: An early red and white, fine-flavored, crisp eating apple. Small, 
but full of spice. 

McIntosh Eed. — This is another of the Fameuse group and perhaps 
the most popular. Dark red and of fine flavor for dessert. 

Bethel. — Our best winter apple is the Bethel. This variety originated 
within thirty miles of this farm. It matures late in the fall, is a dark red 
color and one of the best of keepers, and as handsome a winter apple as 
one cares to see. It resembles a Northern Spy, and makes a splendid eating 
apple. 

NoDHEAD. — The Nodhead is another of our favorites. A late apple, 
it is streaked with red and makes a table fruit of quality. It is a good 
keeper and should please you. 

Lincoln. — We want you to know the Lincoln. It is a trade-holder. 
But that is next year's story, for this is their non-bearing year. 

We shall pack the fancy grades of these apples in western style as 
near as may be and will deliver them, freight prepaid, to either Boston or 
New York for $2.50 per box. We will appreciate a trial order and ask for 
a check with the order. Our personal guarantee goes with every box. We 
wish to replace every apple that arrives in damaged condition, through 
fault of ours, whenever this is possible. 

If you insist, we will sell you a barrel of our Number One grade for 
$4.50, freight paid to New York. Our responsibility ends with delivery 
to the transportation company. We believe in our Fancy Grade and would 
rather sell it. We think you get more for your money. 

Julian A. Dimock, 
East Corinth, Vermont. 

Such advertising is bound to attract an especially good class 
of consumers. 

Recipes. — One more type of advertising leaflet may be men- 
tioned, and that is the one which, after giving some general in- 
formation about the fruit and where it was grown, proceeds to 
suggest ways in which it may be used. Recipes for peach ice- 
cream, peach marmalade, and canned peaches may be put into 
each basket of peaches, and the customer who bought one basket 
to eat out of hand may end by buying a half-dozen to put up for 
the winter. Here is a sample : 



ADVERTISE WITH SAMPLES 295 

PEACHES. 

We have more of this same grade for sale. Did you ever see finer 
for the money? Why don't you put up some for winter? Here are a 
few of the many ways in which they may be preserved. Try some of them! 
You'll be glad next winter that you did ; not only when there is unexpected 
company for supper, but when you feel like having something a little extra 
yourself! 

Canned Peaches. 

4 pounds peaches. 
1 pound sugar. 

1 quart water. 

Put the sugar and water in kettle and allow to Ijoil a few minutes. Add 
peaches and cook slowly until soft. Place carefully in jars and seal. 

Peach Marmalade. 
10 pounds peaches. 

5 pounds sugar. 
% cup water. 

Put the water in a preserving kettle; add the fruit and sugar in alternate 
layers. Heat slowly and stir and mash the fruit, breaking it up as much 
as possible. Cook about two hours and put away in small jars. 

Pickled Peaches. 

7 pounds peaches. 

4 pounds granulated sugar. 

1 pint vinegar. 

1 cup spice — stick cinnamon and whole cloves. 

Tie the spices in little cheese-cloth bags. Put the vinegar and sugar in a 
kettle on the stove and stir until the sugar is dissolved. Then add the 
bags of spice and boil for 20 minutes. Add the peaches which have been 
peeled. Do not remove the pits. Boil slowly till soft. Put in stone jars. 

Bay Road Fruit Farm, 

Amherst, Mass. 

Advertise with Samples. — If you are selling apples, and pos- 
sibly pears, there are great possibilities in sending a single sample 
fruit by mail or giving it away at any store which is handling your 
fruit. This is an old scheme of the cracker manufacturers and 
the breakfast food men and has sometimes been resorted to by the 



296 



ADVERTISING 



western fruit growers, who always head the procession in such 
matters. Of course some advertising matter accompanies the 
sample saying what grade it is and giving prices for this and 
other grades. If you are growing something like Mcintosh or 
Northern Spy apples, that are bound to make friends when 
tasted, this sample method is excellent. Probably no one would 
expect to sell many Ben Davis apples in this way. There are 
two considerations which ought always to be kept in mind in 
using this method: First, that it will not pay unless one has 
a fairly large quantity of fruit to dispose of, and second, that 
great care should be exercised to see that the sample is not 
better than the stock from which resulting orders will be filled. 
Window displays are capable of selling more fruit than al- 
most any other method if they are rightly handled. To begin 
with, the grower must get a window in a good store in which the 

public has confidence. The 
disi^lay must be something 
unusual that will at once 
catch the eye of the public. 
Fine, highly colored fruit 
in fancy packages, with 
perhaps, in the case of 
apples, a barrel or two 
with the fruit pouring out. 
Add to this a few photo- 
graphs and a few advertis- 



HAVE YOU 

A HANKERIN' 

for those firm, sweet apples you used to 
knock off Jbe tree with a club when theoH 
nan A-asn't looking? That was b»ck 
to the days when the East— the natural 
apple country — u-as producing buinpef 
crops. It was before the days of Ore- 
gon applet that have size and color, but 
lack the re«l flavor of Eastern hillsides. 1 
have r<jn»enated a Vermont orchard Wid will 
have for October delivery » limited quantiiy of 
apples that are just a little th« best that can 
be grown. Drop me a card for the particulars. 

JUUAN A, DIMOCK, Ewt Corialh, 




Fig. 155.— a magazine advertisement that is iug placards and yOU haVe 
sure to attract attention. , . .. .i . •^^ 

a combination that will 
keep you busy filling orders for some time to come. One grower 
in Massachusetts put up such a display in the window of a Boston 
store and within two weeks received five hundred letters order- 
ing fruit or asking for prices. 

Nev^spaper and magazine advertising, if it is done in a 
businesslike way, is always good, provided the grower has fruit 
enough to justify it. Of course it will not pay if he has only one 
hundred baskets of peaches or fifty barrels of apples. But with 
reasonably large orchards, and especially with cooperative asso- 



HAVE DEALER AND BUYER VISIT THE ORCHARD 297 

ciations, there are great possibilities in this type of advertising. 
Like the leaflets it wants to be good material. The one here shown 
is one of the best samples the writer has ever seen (Fig. 155) . Of 
course we do not all have Mr. Dimock's ability in this line, but 
most of us can do something if we try hard enough. 

Have the Dealer and Buyer Visit the Orchard. — If you are 
selling fruit through a store, or even a commission house, get the 
proprietor and even his head clerk to come out and see the or- 
chard. Take them out in picking season when there is something 
worth seeing and worth eating. Show them how the fruit is 
grown and handled, and if your orchard and methods are worth 
showing you will get these men interested and they will sell twice 
as much fruit as they would if they knew only the store end of 
the business. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What ia the advantage of naming the farm? Suggest some good names. 

2. Of what value is the farm bulletin board? 

3. Discuss the use of the package label. 

4. Describe the method of advertising by means of printed material in the 

package. 

5. Under what conditions do samples make a good msthod of advertising? 

6. Describe the window-display method. 

7. Discuss newspaper advertising. 

8. What is the advantage in having the buyer visit the orchard? 



CHAPTER XXII. 

LAWS AFFECTING ORCHARDING. 

In the recent wide extension of the legal regulation of business 
the orchard industry has not been allowed to escape. The first 
of these fruit laws aimed at the control of orchard pests, prin- 
cipally those carried in nursery stock, but to a certain extent those 
in the orchards themselves. The later laws have undertaken to 
regulate principally the packing and sale of fruit. While many 
of the first laws were crude and while some of them have been 
flat failures, there is no question that many of them have been of 
marked assistance to the fruit industry. 

PESTS IN NURSERY-STOCK 

Let us look first at the laws in relation to nursery-stock. These 
have been of two types : First, those which required the examina- 
tion and perhaps fumigation of nursery-stock coming into a State 
or nation; second. State laws requiring the inspection of nurs- 
ery-stock. The value of an examination of stock is quite variable, 
depending on the conspicuousness of the pest and the conscience 
of the inspector. Where the pest is one easily seen like the brown- 
tail moth for example, a thorough examination ought to prevent 
absolutely its entry into a State or its shipment from a nursery. 
On the other hand, when a pest is as inconspicuous as the San Jose 
scale, it is absolutely impossible, even after the most rigid inspec- 
tion, to say that the stock is free from it. It can only be said that 
none was discovered. The value of such an inspection as this last 
rests on the fact that if the stock were badly infected the inspector 
would discover it. 

When a pest can be destroyed by some treatment of the nurs- 
ery-stock, such as fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas for the 
San Jose scale, the treatment is of far more value than the best 
inspection ever given. It practically guarantees the freedom of 
the stock from this pest. The difficulty is that so few of our pests 
can be destroyed in this way. 
29S 



NATIONAL LAWS 299 

Another point of great practical importance is the question of 
what shall be done with stock found to be infested with some 
serious pest. Such stock ought either to be treated so as to free 
it from the pest or else the stock ought to be destroyed. For 
example, an inspector looking for San Jose scale in a nursery when 
he discovered the scale on a tree, might break it down as an indica- 
tion to the nurseryman that that particular tree was to be dug 
out and destroyed. But immediately adjoining trees, whose 
branches might interlock with those of the tree broken down, but 
on which the inspector failed to find any scale, might be allowed to 
stand and be shipped out to customers. Such an inspection is ab- 
solutely worthless. In fact it is worse than that, because if the pur- 
chaser knows of it he is thereby thrown off his guard and is less 
likely to discover the pest for himself. 

Local Administration, — Any law dealing with orchard pests, 
whether it be with those in the nursery or in the orchard, is much 
more likely to be of value if it is administered by a State or na- 
tional officer, rather than being left to a local official. The locally 
administered law is absolutely dependent on local support for its 
effectiveness. If the people of the neighborhood believe in it with 
sufficient zeal, then the law is carried out ; if they do not, then the 
most zealous official is powerless. The writer has seen this well 
illustrated in the case of laws against the black-knot of plums. 
When public sentiment was not strong on the subject, black-knot 
flourished undisturbed even in orchards immediately adjoining 
the highway. 

' Nationail laws are likely to be most effective both because of the 
fact just suggested and because such a law brings all parts of the 
country under uniform regulations. For example, the United 
States has a ' ' Quarantine Act, ' ' by the provisions of which the 
Secretary of Agriculture may prohibit the importation of plants 
or of fruits likely to be the means of introducing into this country 
a dangerous pest. The following was Secretary Wilson's order 
prohibiting the importation of fruits likely to bring in the ' ' IMexi- 
can fruit fly " : 

The fact lias been determined by tlie Secretary of x\gri culture that an 
injurious insect kno\\Ti as the Mexican fruit fly {Trypeta ludens), new 



300 LAWS AFFECTING ORCHARDING 

and not heretofore widely prevalent and distributed within and throughout 
the United States, exists in the Republic of Mexico. 

Now, therefore, I, James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, under 
authority conferred by section 7 of the act of August 20, 1912, known as 
" The plant quarantine act," do hereby declare that it Is necessary, in 
order to prevent the introduction into the United States of the insect known 
as the Mexican fruit fly {Trypeta ludens) , to forbid the importation into 
the United States from the Republic of Mexico of the following fruits: 

Sweet limes Peaches 

Mangoes Plums 

Oranges Guavas 
Achras sapotes 

Hereafter, and until further notice, by virtue of said section 7 of the 
act of Congress approved August 2X), 1912, the importation or entry into 
the United States for any purpose of the fruits hereinbefore named and 
their horticultural varieties is prohibited. 

Done at Washington this loth day of January, 1913. 
W^itness my hand and the seal of the United States Department of 
Agriculture. 

James Wilson, 
Secretary of Agriculture. 

As soon as such a notice is given the fruits affected are stopped 
at the port of entry. 



PACKING AND SALE OF FRUITS 

Canadian Laws and Regulations, — In the realm of laws in- 
tended to govern the packing and sale of fruits the Canadian 
' ' Inspection and Sale Act, ' ' better known as ' ' Fruit Marks Act, ' ' 
is the oldest, the most far-reaching, and consequently the most 
worthy of study. Its chief provisions are as follows: 



The Marking of Fruit. — 320. Every person who, by himself or through 
the agency of another person, packs fruit in a closed package, intended for 
sale, shall cause the package to be marked in a plain and indelible manner 
in letters not less than half an inch in length, before it is taken from the 
premises where it is packed, — 

(a) With the initials of his Christian names, and his full surname 
and address, or, in the case of a firm or corporation, with the firm or cor- 
porate name and address; 



CANADIAN LAWS AND REGULATIONS 301 

(5) With the name of the variety or varieties; and, 

(c) With a designation of the grade of fruit, which shall include one 
of the following four marks, viz. : Fancy, No. 1, No. 2, No. 3. 

2. Such mark may be accompanied by any other designation of grade 
or brand, if that designation or brand is not inconsistent with, or marked 
more conspicuously than, the one of the said four marks which is used 
on the said package. 

321. No person shall sell, or offer, expose, or have in his possession 
for sale, any fruit packed, — 

(a) In a closed package and intended for sale unless such package is 
marked as required by the provisions of this Part; 

(6) In a closed package, upon which package is marked any designa- 
tion which represents such fruit as of 

(i) Fancy quality, unless such fruit consists of well-grown speci- 
mens of one variety, sound, of uniform and of at least normal size and of 
good color for the variety, of normal shape, free from worm holes, bruises, 
scab and other defects, and properly packed; 

(ii) No. 1 quality, unless such fruit includes no culls and consists of 
well-grown specimens of one variety, sound, of not less than medium size 
and of good color for the variety, of normal shape and not less than 
ninety per cent free from scab, worm holes, bruises and other defects, and 
properly packed; 

(iii) No. 2 quality, unless such fruit includes no culls and consists 
of specimens of not less than nearly medium size for the variety, and not 
less than eighty per cent free from worm holes and such other defects as 
cause material waste, and properly packed; 

(c) In any package in which the faced or showm surface gives a false 
representation of the contents of such package; and it shall be considered 
a false representation when more than fifteen per cent of such fruit is 
substantially smaller in size than, or inferior in grade to, or different in 
variety from, the faced or shown surface of such package. 

Branding Falsely Marked and Falsely Packed. — 322. Whenever any 
fruit in any package is found to be so packed that the faced or shown sur- 
face gives a false representation of the contents of the package, any in- 
spector charged with the enforcement of this Part may mark the words 
Falsely packed in a plain and indelible manner on the package. 

2, Whenever any fruit packed in a closed package is found to be falsely 
marked, the said inspector may efface such false marks and mark the words 
Falsely marked in a plain and indelible manner on the package. 

3. The inspector shall give notice, by letter or telegram, to the packer 
whose name is marked on the package, within twenty-four hours after he 
marks the words Falsely packed or Falsely marked on the package. 

Fruit Packages. — 325. All apples packed in Canada for export for sale 
by the barrel in closed barrels shall be packed in good and strong barrels of 



302 LAWS AFFECTING ORCHARDING 

seasoned wood having dimensions not less than the following, namely: 
Twenty-six inches and one-fourth between the heads, inside measure, and a 
head diameter of seventeen inches, and a middle diameter of eighteen inches 
and one-half, representing as nearly as possible ninety-six quarts. 

2. When apples, pears or quinces are sold by the barrel, as a measure 
of capacity, such barrel shall not be of lesser dimensions than those specified 
in this section. 

3. When apples are packed in Canada for export for sale by the box,, 
they shall be packed in good and strong boxes of seasoned wood, the inside 
dimensions of which shall not be less than ten inches in depth, eleven 
inches in width and twenty inches in length, representing as nearly as pos- 
sible two thousand two hundred cubic inches. 

4. When apples are packed in boxes or barrels having trays or fillers 
wherein it is intended to have a separate compartment for each apple, the 
provisions of this section as to boxes and barrels shall not apply. 

Inspector's Right to Examine. — 327. Any person charged with the en- 
forcement of this Part may enter upon any premises to make examitiation 
of any packages of fruit suspected of being falsely marked or packed in 
violation of any of the provisions of this Part, whether such packages are 
on the premises of the owner, or on other premises, or in the possession of a 
railway or steamship company. 

Offences and Penalties. — 328. Every person who, by himself or through 
the agency of any other person, violates any of the provisions of sections 
320 and 321 of this Act, shall be liable, for the first offence, to a fine not 
exceeding twenty-five dollars and not less than ten dollars; for the second 
offence, to a fine not exceeding fifty dollars and not less than twenty-five 
dollars; and for the third and each subsequent offence, to a fine not ex- 
ceeding two hundred dollars and not less than fifty dollars, together, in 
all cases, with the costs of prosecution; and in default of payment of such 
fine and costs shall be liable to imprisonment, with or without hard labor, 
for a term not exceeding one month, unless such fine and costs, and the 
costs of enforcing them, are sooner paid. 

2. Wlienever any such violation is with respect to a lot or shipment 
consisting of fifty or more closed packages, there may be imposed, in addi- 
tion to any penalty provided by this section, for the first offence twenty- 
five cents, for the second offence fifty cents, and for the third and each sub- 
sequent offence one dollar, for each closed package in excess of fifty with 
respect to which such violation is committed. 

329. Every person who, not being an inspector, wilfully alters, effaces, 
or obliterates, wholly or partially, or causes to be altered, effaced, or oblit- 
erated, any marks on any package which has undergone inspection, shall 
incur a penalty of one hundred dollars for the first offence, together in all 
cases, with the costs of prosecution; and in default of payment of such 
fine and cost shall be liable to imprisonment, with or without hard labor, 



CANADIAN LAWS AND REGULATIONg ^03 

for a term not exceeding one month, unless such fine and costs, and the costs 
of enforcing them, are sooner paid. 

330. Every person who violates any of the provisions of sections 325 
and 326 of the Act shall be liable, on summary conviction, to a penalty of 
twenty-five cents for each barrel of apples, or box of apples, pears, quinces, 
berries, or currants, or basket of fruit, or berry box, respecting which such 
violation is committed, together with the costs of prosecution; and in 
default of payment of such fine and costs shall be liable to imprisonment, 
with or without hard labor, for a term not exceeding one month, unless 
such fine and costs, and the costs of enforcing them, are sooner paid. 

332. Every person who obstructs any person charged with the enforce- 
ment of this Part in entering any premises to make examination of pack- 
ages of fruit as provided by this Part, or who refuses to permit the making 
of any such examination, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five 
hundred dollars and not less than twenty-five dollars, together with the 
costs of prosecution, and in default of payment of such penalty and costs, 
shall be liable to imprisonment, with or without hard labor, for a term 
not exceeding six months, unless such penalty and costs, and the costs of 
enforcing the same, are sooner paid. 

Explanatio7i.—The following ''general notes" are also of in- 
terest as explaining and interpreting the tei^ms of the act : 

(a) For Inspectors. 

Inspectors will not examine particular lots of fruit at the request of 
buyers or sellers. When not under specific directions, inspectors will use 
their discretion as to where they can best employ their time within the 
district assigned them. 

Inspectors will avoid anything which would delay unnecessarily the 
movement of fruit or which would interfere with the interests of those con- 
cerned in the fruit trade, except in so far as action may be necessary to 
prevent violation of the Act. 

Packages which have been inspected are to be closed by the inspector 
and left in marketable order after examination, unless the owner prefers to 
take charge of such opened packages. 

(&) For the Grower. 

If the grower sells his fruit unpacked, the Act does not apply to him 
in any particular. 

If he sells his fruit in uncovered barrels or boxes, the Act requires 
only that the top of each package shall be no better than the fruit throughout 
the package. 



304 LAWS AFFECTING ORCHARDING 

If the grower packs his own fruit he accepts the responsibility of the 
packing, as described in the following paragraph: 

(c) For the Packer [the Owner at the time of Packing). 

Section 320 of the Act requires that the person who owns the fruit 
when it is packed in closed barrels or boxes must mark plainly on each 
package : 

1. His name and post office address. 

2. The name of the variety of the fruit. 

3. The grade of the fruit, whether it is " Fancy," " No. 1," " No. 2,'' 

or "No. 3." 

If he marks the package " Fancy " the fruit must be practically perfect, 
as described in section 321 (6) (i). 

On reading subsection (&) (ii) carefully, it will be seen that the 
packer should aim in packing grade No. 1 to discard every injured or 
defective fruit, and not to deliberately include ten per cent of inferior 
specimens. This margin is meant to make the work of grading easier and 
more rapid than if absolute perfection were exacted. Ten per cent is 
presumed to be the margin within which an honest packer can do rapid 
work, using every endeavor to make each specimen conform to the general 
standard for the grade. 

Even the twenty per cent margin in grade No. 2 must be composed of 
specimens not less than nearly medium size, including no culls. 

The Act makes no restriction as to the quality of fruit which is marked 
" No. 3." 

The owner at the time of packing is responsible if the face of each 
package does not represent the contents as required by section 321, sub- 
section (c). Over-facing is an offence against the Act, which is most 
severely dealt with by the courts. 

( d ) For the Foreman of the Packing Gang. 

Whether he is putting up his own fruit or that of another person, the 
man who does the packing is required, by section 4 of the Order in Council 
printed above, to pack the fruit in accordance with the law. He should 
read the whole Act carefully, but should give section 321 special attention. 
If he violates these requirements, he is liable to the fine specified in section 
5 of the Order in Council. 

(e) For the Apple Operator. 

The apple operator for his own protection should see that his work- 
men are familiar with the Inspection and Sale Act, Part IX. 

Section 4 of the Order in Council is a special protection for the apple 



OPINIONS OF THE CANADIAN LAW 305 

operator against carelessness or fraudulent work upon the part of his 
packers. 

Where the apple operator buys apples already packed, he should note 
particularly that the fruit is marked as required by section 320. 

To avoid possible complications in case of fraudulent packing, all con- 
tracts should stipulate clearly whether the apples are purchased packed 
in barrels or whether they are purchased to be packed by the buyer. 

Apples should not be bought or sold with the stipulation, " subject to 
government inspection."' There is no such thing as "government inspec- 
tion," meaning a " certificate " or " report " guaranteeing the quality of a 
particular lot of fruit. 

Opinions of the Canadian Law. — There can be no doubt 
whatever as to the efficacy of this act. All classes of men in- 
terested in the orchard industry of Canada agree in endorsing 
its main provisions and in commending its effect on the fruit in- 
dustry of that country. By way of evidence on this point the 
writer has taken pains to secure the opinions of representative 
men of various occupations, some of which are here given : 

From the Fruit Growers. — ''The Fruit ]\Iarks Act has done 
and is doing good work. The longer it is in operation and the 
better it is understood, the more good it is doing. I can safely 
say that apples are now much better packed than formerly." 

2. ''I consider, the Act was one of the most necessary, the 
wisest and best bits of legislation bearing upon agriculture that 
our federal government has put through. The effect of it at home 
has been most wholesome and though there have been a few most 
foolish and short-sighted breaches of the act by fruit growers, 
yet generally speaking it has made them very careful and they 
realize that the legislation has not only been helpful to Canadian 
fruit as a whole but has been beneficial to their own individual 
work. ' * 

3. ''The Act is certainly a good thing for Canada, as it has 
been the means of bringing up the standard of Canadian packing 
in the English markets." 

From a Large Dealer and Buyer. — "The Act has certainly 
had a marked effect in improving the packing of apples by keeping 
farmers up to the mark, and by putting inspectors in touch with 



306 LAWS AFFECTING ORCHARDING 

the bad packers, who would otherwise continue shipping badly 
packed fruit to the detriment of the good packers. It has also 
had its effect in warehouse-packing and checked many frauds. 
One of these was the marking up of the grade of fruit and another 
was the branding and shipping of fruit under spurious names and 
marks. Packers are every year having a more wholesome regard 
for the Fruit Marks Act, and I look for a steady improvement in 
the pack. ' ' 

Fruit Standardized. — Turning now to the officials of the 
Dominion Department of Agriculture we have several opinions : 

Mr. George H. Vroom, Chief Fruit Inspector for the Province 
of Nova Scotia, says: ''The Fruit Marks Act has standardized 
the pack to such an extent that Canadian apples average from 
one to two shillings more per barrel than under the old methods. 
It has aided very materially in the formation of cooperative asso- 
ciations, which means first, last and always a better and higher 
grade article to put on the market. And this improved pack has 
been the means of opening up new markets to Canadian fruit. In 
short the Fruit Marks Act has succeeded beyond the most 
sanguine expectations." 

Professor W. T. Macoun, Dominion Horticulturist, says: 
''While the Fruit Marks Act has not yet made every Canadian 
apple packer put his apples up in accordance with the require- 
ments of the Act, yet much has already been accomplished in this 
direction. It has given fruit growers standards of what No. 1 and 
No. 2 grades of apples should be. This was not clearly understood 
before the passage of the Act and there was a great difference of 
opinion among fruit growers as to what constituted a No. 1 and a 
No. 2 apple. The Fruit Marks Act has made the branding of 
barrels much more uniform. Formerly a man could put as many 
Xs on the barrel as he thought would sell his fruit to the best ad- 
vantage. Now the grade marks must be confined to No. 1, No. 2 
and No. 3 and the packer's name and address must be on every 
closed package. This we consider a great step forward. ' ' 

Mr. A. McNeill, Chief of the Fruit Division, says: "In my 
opinion the Fruit Marks Act has revolutionized the packing of 



UNITED STATES LAW FOR APPLES 307 

apples in Canada. The effect of it lias been to establish definite 
grades. It is safe to say that there have been thousands of dollars 
saved in law expenses alone by the definiteness of the definitions 
and the conclusiveness of them from the fact that they are a 
matter of law. The second benefit from the law is that the 
Canadian pack is more uniform as a whole than it would have 
been. Notwithstanding the many violations of the law, and not- 
withstanding the wide range of grades that may be packed within 
each of the grades noted in the Act, it is now being recognized 
quite definitely in the markets of the world that Canadian apples 
are in the main of the quality marked upon the outside of the 
package. ' ' 

Mr. McNeill then quotes from a letter received from one of their 
Canadian Consuls in an English city who says : ' ' From a personal 
interview with a dozen or more firms in this city, selected at ran- 
dom, it is safe to say that this English city consumes $15,000 to 
$20,000 worth of apples weekly during the season from October to 
the middle of March or April. Of this amount about three-fifths 
are Canadian, the remaining American. Practically all of these 
apples are bought of commission men in Liverpool. The tendency 
of the trade here is to favor the Canadian grower and packer, the 
reason given for this being that Canada exercises a supervision 
over the grading, packing and branding of its fruit that is en- 
tirely lacking in the American product." 

United States Law for Apples. — This is certainly very strong 
evidence, coming as it does from men in so many varied lines of 
work, and it is small wonder that the United States has made an 
attempt to take up a similar line of work. The following act was 
approved August 3, 1912, and everyone connected with the fruit 
industry is watching its effect with the greatest interest. The 
chief objection to the law is that its standards are not sufficiently 
high. 

An act to establish a standard barrel and standard grades for apples 
when packed in barrels, and for other purposes. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled, That the standard barrel for 



308 LAWS AFFECTING ORCHARDING 

apples shall be of the following dimensions when measured without disten- 
tion of its parts: Length of stave, twenty-eight and one-half inches; diam- 
eter of head, seventeen and one-eighth inches; distance between heads, 
twenty-six inches; circumference of bulge, sixty-four inches outside meas- 
urement, representing as nearly as possible seven thousand and fifty-six 
cubic inches: Provided, That steel barrels containing the interior dimen- 
sions provided for in this section shall be construed as a compliance there- 
with. 

Sec. 2. That the standard grades for apples when packed in barrels 
which shall be shipped, or delivered for shipment in interstate or foreign 
commerce, or which shall be sold or offered for sale within the District of 
Columbia or the Territories of the United States, shall be as follows : Apples 
of one variety, which are well-grown specimens, hand picked, of good color 
for the variety, normal shape, practically free from insect and fungous 
injury, bruises, and other defects, except such as are necessarily caused in 
the operation of packing, or apples of one variety which are not more than 
ten per cent below the foregoing specifications shall be " Standard grade 
minimum size two and one-half inches," if the minimum size of the apples 
is two and one-half inches in transverse diameter ; " Standard grade mini- 
mum size two and one-fourth inches," if the minimum size of the apples is 
two and one-fourth inches in transverse diameter ; or " Standard grade 
minimum size two inches," if the minimum size of the apples is two inches 
in transverse diameter. 

Sec. 3. That the barrels in which apples are packed in accordance with 
the provisions of this Act may be branded in accordance with section two 
of this Act. 

Sec. 4. That all barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be below 
standard if the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indicating 
that the barrel is a standard barrel of apples, as herein defined, and the 
capacity of the barrel is less than the capacity prescribed by section one of 
this Act, unless the barrel shall be plainly marked on end and side with 
words or figures showing the fractional relation which the actual capacity 
of the barrel bears to the capacity prescribed by section one of this Act. 
The marking required by this paragraph shall be in black letters of size 
not less than (seventy- two point) one-inch gothic. 

Sec. 5. That barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be mis- 
branded within the meaning of this Act: 

First. If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indicating 
that the apples contained therein are " Standard " grade and the apples 
when packed do not conform to the requirements prescribed by section two 
of this Act. 

Second, If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indicating 
that the apples contained therein are " Standard " grade and the barrel 
fails to bear also a statement of the name of the variety, the name of the 



REGULATING COMMISSION MERCHANTS 309 

locality where grown, and the name of the packer or the person by whose 
authority the apples were packed and the barrel marked. 

Sec. 6. That any person, firm or corporation, or association who shall 
knowingly pack or cause to be packed apples in barrels or who shall know- 
ingly sell or offer for sale such barrels in violation of the provisions of 
this Act shall be liable to a penalty of one dollar and costs for each such 
barrel so sold or offered for sale, to be recovered at the suit of the United 
States in any court of the United States having jurisdiction. 

Sec. 7. That this Act shall be in force and effect from and after the 
first day of July, nineteen hundred and thirteen. 

REGULATING COMMISSION MERCHANTS 

Another type of law which has recently been advocated is 
that which attempts to regulate the business of commission men. 
Probably no one will deny that there have been many abuses by 
unscrupulous men of the commission method of selling fruit and 
it is hoped by the advocates of these laws that some at least of 
these abuses may be corrected. A bill passed by the New York 
legislature will give an idea of what is attempted in this direction. 
The following are its chief provisions : 

1. Every person doing a commission business in farm products 
is required to take out a license with the Commissioner of 
Agriculture. 

2. The Commissioner may refuse to grant a license to a prod- 
uce man whom he is convinced is not honest in his business 
dealings. 

3. Each commission man is required to give a fidelity bond 
of $3000 as a guarantee of honest dealing, and farmers may collect 
from this bond for money not honestly accounted for by the com- 
mission merchant. 

4. The commissioner is also authorized to give hearings and 
to examine the records bearing on the case under dispute. 

Laws of this kind have long been needed and cannot fail to do 
good. Doubtless there will have to be many changes as the details 
are worked out, but it is certainly a move in the right direction. 

Many people object to all these laws on packing and selling 
because they say, ' ' You cannot make a man honest by legislation. * ' 
Perhaps 70U cannot^ but if you can ''legislate" him 30 that he 



310 LAWS AFFECTING ORCHARDING 

acts as though he were honest, it may do just as well so far as 
selling fruit is concerned. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What two types of laws are there relating to orcharding? 

2. What two types regarding nursery-stock? 

3. What are some of the difficulties regarding inspection of nursery-stock? 

4. Compare local administration of these laws with national, 

5. Give some of the main provisions of the Canadian " Fruit Marks Act." 

6. With what favor has the law been received by growers? By buyers? 

By officials? 

7. Give the main provisions of the United States law regarding apples 

packed in barrels. 

8. What provisions have been recommended for the regulation of the 

commission business? 



INDEX 



Acme harrow, 95 

Advertising, 287 
by recipes, 294 
by samples, 295 
by window displays, 296 
Age of nm-sery trees, 40 
Animals, danger to, from spraying, 

206 
Aphis, 149 

apple, 149 
cherry, 161 
Apple barrel, 260 

presses, 263 
blotch, 167 
borers, 155 
box, 260 
canker, 168 
curculio, 151 
fly-speck disease, 169 
insects, 144 
maggot, 154 
method of bearing, 120 
rust, 167 
scab, 165 
sooty blotcjb, 169 
Apples, grades of, 258 

packing in barrels, 264 
in boxes, 270 
Asparagus as a companion crop, 75 
Aspect of orchard lands, 12 
Atmospheric drainage, 12 
Atomic sulphur, 197 

Baldwin soils, 16 

Barley as a cover crop, 115 

Barrel, apple, 260 

pump, 177 
Beans as a companion crop, 71 
Bearing, methods of fruit, 119 

trees, pruning, 136 
Blackberries as a companion crop, 75 
Black-knot of plums, 173 
Blister mite, 158 
Blossoming period, spraying during, 

149 
Blotch of apples, 167 
Bordeaux mixture, 191 

nozzle, 185 



Borer, apple, 155 

peach, 160 

pin, 157 

shot-hole, 157 
Borers in orchards, 82 
Brown rot of plums, peaches and 

cherries, 171 
Buckwheat as a companion crop, 73 

as a cover crop, 113 
Bud moth, 151 
Bulletin boards, 287 

Cabbage as a companion crop, 71 
Canadian laws, 300 
Canker, apple, 168 

worms, 152 
Census figures regarding apples, 2 
Cherry, method of fruit-bearing, 124 

packages for, 262 
Clover, common red, as a cover crop, 
116 
crimson, as a cover crop, 116 
mammoth red, as a cover crop, 

116 
to add nitrogen, 110 
Codling moth, 147 
Color of fruit, 27 

in sod orchards, 79 
Commercial lime-sulfur solutions, 194 
Commission merchants, laws regu- 
lating, 309 
Companion crops for orchards, 67 
good, 71 
hst of, 70 
poor, 75 
Concentrated lime-sulfur, home- 
made, 195 
Conserving moisture, 81 
Contact insecticides, 198 
Cooperative marketing, 283 
Copper salts for sprays, 190 

sulfate, 191 
Corn as a companion crop, 73 
Cost of orchard, 63 
of spraying, 210 
of storage, 248 
of thinning fruit, 233 
Cover crop, barley as a, 115 

3U 



312 



INDEX 



Cover crop, buckwheat as a, 113 
cow peas as a, 113 
crimson clover as a, 115 
mammoth red clover as a, 

116 
peas as a, 118 
rape as a, 114 
red clover as a, 116 
rye as a, 115 
soybeans as a, 117 
turnips as a, 113 
vetches as a, 116 
weeds as a, 118 
crops, 108 

best crops to use, 112 
in old orchards, 226 
plowing under, 112 
time to sow, 90 
use of, to add humus, 109 
nitrogen, 110 
to check growth 109 
to hold snow, 112 
to prevent washing, 108 
to protect windfalls. 111 
to take up plant food 
110 
Cow peas as a cover crop, 113 
Cropping the orchard, 66 
Cultivating old orchards, 225 
Cultivation, advantages of, 81 
for orchards, 95 
methods of, 83 
time to stop, 87 
Culture of orchards, 77 
Currants as a companion crop, 73 
CurcuUo apple, 151 
plum, 151, 161 
Cutaway harrow for orchards, 94 

Damage during cultivation, 88 
Disc harrowing instead of plowing, 85 

harrows for orchards, 94 

plow for orchards, 93 

type of nozzles, 185 
Diseases of fruit trees, 163 

pome fruits, 16'5 

stone fruits, 171 
Distances for planting, 58 
table of, 59 
Double-action hand pump, 180 
Drainage, 11 
Dressing for wounds, 140 
Drew, George A., fertilizer formula 

of, 105 
T>Ty sprays vs. licfuid, 190 



Experiments in fertilizers, 101 
Extension rod for spraying, 187 

Fall pippin, soils for, 20 
plowing, 45 

advantages of, 84 
setting of trees, 53 
Fertility of soils, 81 
Fertilizer, nitrogen as a, 102 
phosphoric acid as a, 103 
potash as a, 102 
Fertilizers, application of, 106 
formulas for, 105 
for old orchards, 223 
need of, 101 
used by apples, 100 
Fillers, 61 
Fire blight of pears, apples and 

quinces, 169 
Fly-speck disease of apples, 169 
Frost-proof storage, 253 
Fruit-bearing and growth, 126 
method of, in apple, 120 
in cherry, 124 
in peach, 122 
in pear, 120 
in plum, 124 
in quince, 124 
Fruit, keeping quality of, 254 

protection by cover crop. 111 
storage of, 245 
storage types of, 250 
trees, diseases of, 163 
wraps for advertising, 289 
Fungicides, action of, 165 

principal kinds, 191 
Fungus, types of, 163 

Gang plow for orchards, 92 

Gas sprayer, 181 

General market, the, 281 

Gooseberries in orchards, 73 

Grades of apples, 258 

Grades of trees, 42 

Grading fruit, 258 

Grafting old orchards, 220 

Grains in orchards, 75 

Grape-hoe for orchards, 99 

Gravenstein, soils for, 21 

Greening, Rhode Island, soils for, 18 

Grimes Golden, soils for, 20 

Growth and fruit-bearing, 126 

and pruning, 125 
Growth checked by cover crops, 
108 



INDEX 



313 



Hand work in orchards, 88 

Harrows for orchards, 94 

Hay in orchards, 75, 77, 83 

Heading trees, 55 

Health of trees, 26 

Heehng in nursery stock, 50 

Hexagonal method of planting or- 
chards, 46 

Hitchings, Grant, culture methods 
of, 77 _ 

Home-boiled lime-sulfur, 196 

Home-made lime-sulfur concentrate, 
195 

Home spray mixtures vs. commercial, 
189 

Hose spraying, 186 

Hubbardston, soils for, 19 

Hiunus added by cover crops, 109 

Hydrometer, 194 

Implements for orchard cultiire, 91 
Insecticides, 197 
contact, 198 
Insects attacking the apple, 144 
the pear, 157 
stone fruits, 160 
effect of fall plowing on, 85 
in sod orchards, 82 

Keeping of apples grown in sod^ 78 

of fruit, 29 

qualities of fruit, factors in- 
fluencing, 254 
Kerosene emulsion, 199 
Knapsack sprayer, 176 
Knife for pruning, 134 

Labels, 288 

Lands for orchards, 8 

Laws affecting orcharding, 298 

Laying off orchards, 47 

Leaf curl of peach, 172 

Light-draft orchard harrow, 98 

Lime-sulfur, commercial, 194 

home-boiled, 196 

home-made concentrate, 195 

self-boiled, 196 
Low heading of trees, 58 
in sod, 79 

Macoun, Prof. W. T., quoted, 306 
Magazine advertising, 296 
Mangels as companion crop, 72 
Market, general, 281 
special, 280 



Marketing, cooperative, 283 

fruit, 277 
Marshall, A. A., culture methods of, 

77 
Maturity of fruit, proper degree of, 

254 
Mcintosh, soils for the, 20 
McNeill, A., quoted, 306 
Mice in orchards, 82 
Miscible oils, 198 
Munson and Frost, fertilizer formula 

of, 106 

Newspaper advertising, 296 
Nitrogen added by cover crops, 110 
as a fertihzer, 102 
forms of, 103 
Northern-grown nursery stock, 39 
Northern Spy, soils for the, 19 
Nozzles, 185 

Number of trees per acre, 60 
Nursery stock, buying, 24 
in orchards, 75 
trees, age of, 40 

southern- vs. northern- 
grown, 39 

Old orchards, renovating, 212 
Optimum temperature, 34 
Orchard culture, 77 

implements, 91 

insects, 142 

lands, 8 

sites, 8 
Orchards, cropping, 66 
Outlook for orcharding, 1 
Over-production of fruit, 2 

Packages for apples, 260 

for cherries, 262 

for peaches, 261 

for pears, 261 

for plums, 262 

used in storage, 256 
Packing apples, 262 

in barrels, 264 
in boxes, 270 
_ fruit, 258 
Paris-green, 198 
Peach borer, 160 
Peach leaf curl, 172 

method of bearing fruit in, 122 

packages for, 261 

scab, 172 



314 



INDEX 



Pear, insects attacking the, 157 

method of bearing fruit in, 120 

packages for, 261 

psylla, 157 

slug, 159 
Peas as a cover crop, 118 
Phosphoric acid as a fertilizer, 103 

forms of, 103 
Pickers, managing, 243 
Picking and handling fruit, 229 

equipment, 234 
Pick, time to, apples, 237 
cherry, 240 
peach, 239 
pear, 239 
plum, 242 
Plant food held by cover crops, 110 
Planting boards, 49 
Plowing in fall, 45 

under cover crop, 111 
Plows for orchards, 91 

gang, 92 

types of, 92 
Plum, method of bearing fruit in, 124 

packages for, 262 
Pome fruits, diseases of, 165 
Potash as a fertilizer, 102 

forms of, 104 
Price of nursery stock, 42 
Priest, L. P., fertilizer formula of, 

105 
Printed matter in fruit packages, 

290 
Prune, how to, 139 
Pruning, 119 

bearing trees, 136 

general principles of, 125 

knife, 134 

old orchards, 216 

saws, 131 

shears, 133 

summer, 126 

time for, 137 

tools, 129 

young trees, 135 
Psylla, pear, 157 

Quality in fruit, 29 

Quince, method of fruit-bearing in, 

124 
Quincunx method of laying off 

orchard, 46 

Railroad worm, 154 
Rape as a cover crop, 114 



Raspberries as a companion crop, 

75 
Recipes for advertising, 294 
Refrigerated storage, 253 
Renovating old orchards, 212, 228 
Rhode Island Greening, soils for 

the, 18 
Rome Beauty, soils for the, 21 
Roots protected by cover crop. 111 
Roxbury Russet, soils for the, 22 
Rust of apples, 167 
Rye as a cover crop, 115 

San Jose scale, 144 

Saws for pruning, 131 

Scab of apple, 165 
of peach 172 

Score card for apples packed in 
barrels, 270 
in boxes, 275 
commercial variety of 

apples, 24 
orchard site, 8 

Self-boiled lime-sulfur, 196 

Self-sterile varieties, 31 

Setting trees in fall, 53 

Shaw, Dr. J. K., quoted, 33 

Shears for pruning, 133 

Slope for orchards, 12 

Slug, pear, 159 

Snow, held by cover crop, 111 

Sod culture, 77 

advantages of, 78 

Soils for orchards, 9 

the Baldwin, 16 
the Fall Pippin, 20 
the Gravenstein, 21 
the Greening, 18 
the Grimes Golden, 20 
the Hubbardston, 19 
the Mcintosh, 20 
the Northern Spy, 19 
the Rome Beauty, 21 
the Roxbury Russet, 22 
the Tompkins King, 20 
the Wagener, 20 
varieties of apples, 15 

Soluble oils, 198 
sulfur, 197 

Sooty blotch of apples, 169 

Southern -grown nursery stock, 39 

Soybeans as a cover crop, 117 

Spike-tooth harrow for orchards, 95 

Spray pumps, 176 

Sprayer, power, 180 



INDEX 



315 



Spraying an insurance, 206 

apparatus, 175 

campaign, the, 201 

cost of, 210 

in bloom, 149 

materials, 189 

old orchards, 227 

program for apples and pears, 
208 
for peaches and plums, 210 

thoroughly, 204 
Spring planting of trees, 53 

-tooth harrow for orchards, 94 
Squash as a companion crop, 71 
Starr, A. C, fertilizer formula of, 106 
Stewart, Prof. John P., fertilizer for- 
mula of, 106 
Stock solutions for Bordeaux, 192 
Stone fruits, diseases of, 171 

insects attacking, 160 
Storage, advantages of good, 245 

cost of, 248 

frost-proof, 253 

plants, 246 

refrigerated, 253 
Storing fruit, 245 
Strawberries as a companion crop, 

74 
Subsoil, 10 
Sulfur, forms of, 193 
Summer pruning, 126 

Table for barrel packing, 262 

for box packing, 271 
Temperature for storage, 247 
Tent-caterpillar, 153 
Thinning fruit, 229 
Tillage and moisture, 86 
Time to prune, 137 



Time to spray, 204 
Tobacco extracts, 200 
Tompkins King, soils for the, 20 
Tools for pruning, 129 
Trees per acre, 60 
Truck crops in orchards, 72 
Turnips as a companion crop, 72 
as a cover crop, 113 

United States laws, 307 

Varieties in old orchards, 215 

of fruits, 24 

number of, 30 
Vermorel type of nozzle, 185 
Vetches as a cover crop, 116 
V-shaped cultivation for orchards, 99 
Vroom, George H., quoted, 306 

Wagener, soils for the, 20 
Washing of soils in sod, 80 

prevented by cover 
crops, 107 
Water drainage, 1 1 
Weeds as a cover crop, 118 
Whale oil soap, 199 
Wilder, H. J., quoted, 15 
Windbreaks, 13 
trees for, 14 
Windfalls in sod orchards, 80 
Window displays for advertising, 296 
Winter injury of roots prevented by 

cover crops. 111 
Witch grass in orchards, 95 
Wounds, dressings for, 140 
Wrapping fruit in storage, 257 
Wraps for fruit, 289 

Young trees, method of pruning, 135 



